Explore the Gupta Empire's political administration, economic success, scientific innovations, and its influence on ancient Indian civilization.

The Tale of Two Dynasties: Mauryas & Guptas

History does not normally repeat itself, but an interesting coincidence exists between two of the greatest dynasties of Indian history: The Mauryas and The Guptas. A Chandragupta founded the Maurya dynasty in 320 B.C., and exactly six hundred years later, another Chandra Gupta founded the Gupta dynasty in 320 A.D. The Gupta dynasty ruled over India for about two hundred years.

Dr. Barnett describes the Gupta period as:

“The Gupta period is in the annals of classical India almost what the Periclean age is in the history of Greece.”

The Gupta dynasty freed India from Kushana-Sassanian rule, defeated the Huns, and possibly gave India the legendary ruler Vikramaditya. However, like many dynasties of India, the origins of the Imperial Gupta dynasty remain a mystery. V.A. Smith remarks:

“With the accession of the Guptas, light again dawns, the veil of oblivion is lifted, and the history of India regains unity and interest.”

This section explores the political history of the Imperial Guptas from Chandragupta I to Skanda Gupta.

Although the timeline of dynastic succession is sometimes unclear, the Gupta period is a crucial epoch in Indian history. Various sources help reconstruct an almost correct history of the Gupta dynasty, including literature, foreign travel accounts, inscriptions, coins, and monuments. The Gupta dynasty played a pivotal role in liberating India from Kushan-Sassanian rule and defeating the Huns, while the name Vikramaditya became an immortal tradition in Indian history.

Literary Sources

Written history in the classical sense was not widely practiced in ancient India. However, several literary sources provide insights into the Gupta period.

• 1. Puranas

  The Puranas are more prophetic in nature than factual historical records. They mention events often derived from oral traditions, making their accuracy questionable. The Vishnu Purana clearly refers to the rule of the Gupta kings:

  “The nine Nagas will reign in Padmavati, Kantipuri, and Mathura; and the Guptas of Magadha along the Ganges to Prayaga.”

  The Vayu Purana elaborates further, stating that the Guptas will rule over the regions once held by the Nagas. Other important Puranas include Matsya Purana, Brahmanda Purana, and Bhagavata Purana.

• 2. Dharmashastras

  Two major Dharmashastras were likely written during the Gupta period: Narada Smriti and Brihaspati Smriti. These texts provide valuable insights into the laws, governance, and social structure of the Gupta era.

• 3. Administrative Texts

  Kamadaka Nitisara was written during the reign of Chandragupta II by his Prime Minister Sikhara. The book offers guidance on governance and even justifies the murder of a Saka king by the emperor.

• 4. Kavya-Nataka Literature

  The Kaumudi Mahotsava is a five-act drama that describes the political conditions of Magadha before Gupta ascendancy and the internal struggles faced by the rulers. The Devichandraguptam narrates the struggle for the throne between Ramagupta and Chandragupta II.

• 5. Foreign Accounts

  Records of foreign travelers also provide valuable information about the Gupta period.

  Fa-Hien (Faxian), a Chinese Buddhist traveler, visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II. His accounts describe the social, religious, and economic conditions of India, the wealth and prosperity of Indian towns, and the existence of state-maintained hospitals and charitable institutions.

  I-tsing (Yijing) visited India after the Gupta period but provided key information on early Gupta rulers. He mentions Maharaja Srigupta, who built a shrine for Chinese pilgrims at Mrigasikhava. He saw the ruins of this temple and estimated it was built around 500 years before his time, suggesting that Srigupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty.

• 6. Epigraphic Sources

  Inscriptions are an indispensable source for studying the history of the Gupta dynasty. Dr. Fleet compiled the inscriptions of both early and later Guptas. The first 16 inscriptions in the "Corpus Inscription Indecorum" refer to the early Guptas.

  The direct line of the early Gupta dynasty is traced up to Skandagupta. The inscriptions of Buddhagupta (484 A.D.) and Bhanu Gupta (510 A.D.) are found in Nos. 19 and 20 of the 'Corpus'.

  
  

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  Important Inscriptions

  • Allahabad Pillar Inscription:

    Records the conquests of Samudragupta, often called the Napoleon of India.

  • Eran Stone Inscription (No. 2):

    Belonging to Samudragupta, it details his power and achievements.

  • Inscriptions from the time of Chandragupta II:

    Udaygiri Cave Inscription, Mathura Stone Inscription, Sanchi Stone Inscription, and Gadhwa Stone Inscription give us valuable information on religious conditions.

  • Inscriptions related to Kumaragupta I:

    Godhwa Stone Inscription, Bilsad Stone Pillar Inscription, Man-Kuwar Stone Image Inscription.

  • Inscriptions of Skandagupta:

    Bihar Stone Pillar Inscription (in two parts), Junagadh Rock Inscription, Kahaun Stone Pillar Inscription, Indore Copper Plate Inscription.

  • Mahrauli Iron Pillar Inscription:

    Mentions that King Chandra conquered the Vanga countries after battling a united confederacy of enemies and records his conquest of the Vahlikas in a running fight across the seven mouths of the river Sindhu.

  • Bhitari Pillar Inscription (Skandagupta):

    Describes Skandagupta’s fight against the Pushyamitras and possibly the Hunas during his father Kumaragupta I’s reign.

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• 7. Copper Plate Grants (Tamrapatras)

  Apart from stone inscriptions, a significant number of copper plates (known as Tamrapatras) have been discovered. Most contain donative records, mentioning the donor, donees, and land donations. These grants were often given by Gupta rulers to temples. While they provide valuable genealogical information, they are considered less reliable due to discrepancies in dates and possible forgery by beneficiary families. To ensure historical accuracy, these copper plate records must be corroborated with other sources.

Seals

A large number of seals have been found in Vaisali (Muzaffarpur District), shedding light on the provincial and local administration of the Gupta period.

• 1. Seal of Mahadevi Dhruvaswamini

  • Queen of Chandragupta II, mother of Maharaj Govind Gupta.
  • Govind Gupta was possibly the younger brother of Kumaragupta I and served as the Governor of Vaisali.

• 2. Administrative Seals

  • Various seals mention high and low-ranking officials, allowing historians to reconstruct a list of civil and military officers.

Monuments

The monuments of the Gupta period provide crucial information about artistic and religious history.

• The period is marked by distinct art styles such as:
  • Mathura School of Art
  • Banaras School of Art
  • Nalanda School of Art

• 1. Notable Artworks

  • The seated Buddha image in the Sarnath Museum is a masterpiece of the Banaras School of Art.
  • Examples of Nalanda School of Art can be found at Nalanda and Kurkihar.

• 2. Temples of the Gupta Period

  • Udaygiri Pathari Temples: Dedicated to Vishnu.
  • Deogarh Temple: Dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu.
  • Aioli Temple: Dedicated to Durga.

• 3. Ajanta and Ellora Caves

  • The paintings in these caves reflect the artistic tastes of the people.
  • They provide a glimpse into Indian culture and religious life during the Gupta period.

Numismatics: The Legacy of Gupta Coins

Gupta coins offer invaluable insights into history, economy, and artistry. Beyond currency, they symbolized power and culture. In 1914, Allan documented these treasures in "Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties," detailing the diverse coins minted by rulers like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta. Their intricate designs reflect Gupta craftsmanship.

Gupta coinage featured distinct types: Tiger (strength), Lyrist (Samudragupta's patronage of arts), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice, sovereignty), Standard (royal authority), Archer (common under Skandagupta, gold), Couch (rare relaxed depiction), Chhatra (divine kingship), Lion Slayer (valor), Horseman (military prowess), and Elephant-Rider (strength, grandeur).

Inscriptions on these coins hold great poetic merit, naming rulers and glorifying achievements in Sanskrit. Samudragupta and Chandragupta II issued six distinct gold coin types, narrating conquests, devotion, and artistry. These coins preserve the Gupta dynasty's legacy, offering historians and numismatists a glimpse into India’s golden age.

Origin, Homeland, and Ancestry of the Guptas

The Gupta dynasty rose to power around 320 A.D. and ruled until 550 A.D., consolidating Northern India after the Kushanas’ decline. Their era is regarded as the Golden Age of art, architecture, literature, and education. However, their ancestry and homeland remain debated due to limited historical sources.

Various scholars proposed different theories:

• K.P. Jaiswal and Dr. Gayal suggested their origins in Prayag (Allahabad), where they rose as feudatories of the Nagas or Bharsivas.
• Dr. D.C. Ganguli linked them to Murshidabad, Bengal, citing I-Tsing’s accounts.
• S.R. Goyal associated them with Allahabad due to inscriptions found there, though coins appeared in Bengal and Bihar.
• B.P. Sinha placed their origins in the Mathura-Ayodhya region, while D.K. Ganguly refuted this theory.

The ancestry of the Guptas is also debated:

• Some officials under the Shunga and Satavahana dynasties bore the surname Gupta, but their link to the Imperial Guptas remains uncertain.
• Chinese records by I-Tsing list the first rulers as:
  • Maharaja Sri Gupta
  • Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha
  • Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandragupta
• K.P. Jaiswal suggested they were from the Jat tribe of Punjab, a claim dismissed due to lack of evidence.
• Dr. H.C. Roychowdhury connected them to the Dharana Gotra of the Shunga dynasty.
• Dr. S. Chattopadhya found evidence in the Panchobh Copper Plate suggesting they were Kshatriyas, a widely accepted theory.

The surname "Gupta" remains a subject of debate—whether it was a family name or a title. While Sri Gupta first used it as a possible title, later rulers consistently included "Gupta" in their names, solidifying the term "Imperial Gupta Dynasty."

The initial extent of the Gupta Empire is also debated:

• Dr. R.C. Majumdar linked their rule to Varendri (Bengal), citing a Nepalese stupa inscription.
• Dr. Ganguli believed the empire initially covered Bengal and Bihar.
• Allan suggested the Guptas originated in Magadha before expanding into Bengal.
• Some scholars argue their homeland was Varendri, from where they expanded into Magadha.

Foundation of Gupta Empire

Magadha has a history extending far into the early centuries before the Christian era, a history that is considered unique and unrivaled, not just in India but perhaps in the whole world. This province witnessed several political and cultural changes, particularly under the Mauryas, Sungas, and Kanvas. The Kanvas were later overthrown by a Satavahana king, who subsequently ruled over Magadha. However, the Satavahanas could not hold power in Magadha and at Pataliputra for more than fifty years after the fall of the Kanvas.

During the period when the early Kushana rulers, Kadphises and Wema, were advancing against the Satavahanas in Northern India, a local Lichchhavi ruler established himself at Pataliputra. However, the Lichchhavis could not hold their ground for long and were ultimately ousted when a minister of Kanishka led a campaign against Magadha’s capital.

The Kushanas remained the dominant power in Northern India for some time, but their decline gave rise to new local powers. Many erstwhile feudatories of the Andhras started seeking independence. The fall of the Kushanas coincided with the rise of the Bharasivas, an important ruling dynasty of the time. The Puranas mention the names of prominent rulers of this period, such as Vindhyasakti, Pravira-Vindhyasakti, and Pravarasena of the Vakataka dynasty, who emerged as powerful leaders around 260 AD.

The Revival of Hindu Tradition

Two major dynasties, the Bharasivas and the Vakatakas, played a significant role in shaping Northern India's political landscape. Their rise marked a revival of old traditions, particularly the ideals of:

• All-India Imperialism
• Revival of Sanskrit
• Social and Cultural Renaissance

By around 250 AD, the Bharasivas had successfully liberated the Gangetic Valley and reorganized its political structure. During this period, Magadha came under the rule of an orthodox Kshatriya family. The famous Chinese traveler Itsing, who visited India between 670 and 700 AD, stated that a great king, Sri Gupta, had built a temple near Mrigasikhavana for Chinese pilgrims about 500 years earlier. This would place Sri Gupta’s reign around 175-200 AD.

Based on Puranic traditions, historians assume that by the early 4th century, the early Guptas were associated with the banks of the Ganges, particularly in the regions of Prayaga and Saketa. However, due to the lack of epigraphical sources, a complete reconstruction of the events leading to the establishment of Gupta rule in Magadha remains challenging.

The Early Gupta Rulers

If we accept Itsing’s statement as valid, then we must also consider the timeline of Sri Gupta’s successors. Unfortunately, the immediate successors of Sri Gupta remain unknown. However, it is believed that his descendants gradually grew in power. One such ruler, known simply as Gupta, was possibly a grandson of Sri Gupta. He seems to have risen to the position of a feudatory prince, as indicated by the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, where he is referred to as Maharaja. He is also mentioned in the Poona Plates of Prabhavatigupta of the Vakataka dynasty.

Vincent Smith, a renowned historian, places the reign of this ruler between 275 and 300 AD. Following him, the Allahabad Pillar Inscription mentions his son, Maharaja Ghatotkacha. Some scholars, including Bloch, suggested that this Ghatotkacha might be the same as Ghatotkacha Gupta, whose name appeared on a seal at Vaishali. However, this theory was dismissed as no inscription has referred to him as Ghatotkacha Gupta; he is only referred to as Ghatotkacha.

Coins and Chronology

Some scholars also suggested that certain gold coins previously classified as part of the early Gupta series—featuring the name Kaca on the obverse—should be attributed to Ghatotkacha, the father of Chandragupta I. However, this theory was disproved based on the epithets used on the reverse of the coins and the fact that Ghatotkacha, being only a feudatory Maharaja, did not have the authority to issue coinage in his own name.

According to historian Allan, Ghatotkacha must have ruled between 300 and 320 AD. His reign marked the final stage before the rise of the great Chandragupta I, the founder of the Imperial Gupta Empire, who would soon establish the dynasty as a major force in Indian history.

Chandragupta - I

• The first independent sovereign of the Gupta dynasty was Chandra Gupta I, son of Ghatotkacha. He is believed to have ascended the throne in 320 A.D., marking the beginning of the Gupta Era. Like his predecessor Bimbisara, he strengthened his political position through a strategic matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis of Vaisali or Nepal. This marriage laid the foundation of what is often called the Second Magadhan Empire.

• The Lichchhavi Alliance and Its Significance

  Chandra Gupta I’s union with the Lichchhavi family is commemorated by a unique series of coins. These coins feature:

  • Obverse: Depictions of Chandra Gupta I and his queen, the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
  • Reverse: An image of Goddess Lakshmi, symbolizing prosperity, with the inscription "Lichchhavayah", which likely signifies that Chandra Gupta's success was due to his Lichchhavi connection.

  Historians hold different views regarding the political implications of this alliance:

  • Vincent Smith suggests that the Lichchhavis ruled Pataliputra as tributaries of the Kushanas and that Chandra Gupta I inherited their power through his marriage.
  • Allan, however, argues that Pataliputra was already under Gupta control since the time of Sri Gupta.

• The Extent of Chandra Gupta I’s Empire

  From Samudra Gupta's inscriptions, it is evident that Chandra Gupta I's rule was primarily limited to Magadha and its neighboring regions. The Puranic texts describe the Gupta dominions during his reign:

  "Anu-Ganga-Prayagamcha Saketam Magadhashstatha Etan janapadan sarvsn bhokshyante Guptavamsajah."

  

  This suggests that the Gupta rulers controlled:

  • Prayaga (Allahabad)
  • Saketa (Oudh)
  • Magadha (South Bihar)

  However, it is notable that Vaisali (North Bihar) is not included in this list, leading some scholars to believe that Chandra Gupta I did not initially conquer it. The region first appears under Gupta control during the reign of Chandra Gupta II, when it was administered as a viceroyalty by an imperial prince.

  Chandra Gupta I may have gained Prayaga (Allahabad) by defeating local kings whose names are found in inscriptions at Bhita. Some of these rulers include:

  • Maharaja Gautamiputra Sri Sivamagha
  • Rajan Vasishthiputra Bhimasena
  • Maharaja Gautamiputra Vrishadhvaja

The Succession of Samudra Gupta

One of Chandra Gupta I’s most significant acts was the selection of his successor. In an assembly of councilors (Sabhyas) and royal princes, he chose his son, Samudra Gupta, as the next ruler. This decision was based on Samudra Gupta’s demonstrated leadership abilities and kingly virtues.

• Samudra Gupta: The Warrior Emperor

  Samudra Gupta, the fourth ruler of the Gupta dynasty, is considered the greatest among the Gupta emperors. He was anointed heir-apparent due to his exceptional leadership skills. The exact date of his accession remains uncertain, but if the spurious Nalanda Plate holds any credibility, it may have taken place before the 5th year of the Gupta Era (A.D. 325). However, this is debated among historians.

  Several inscriptions confirm that Samudra Gupta was personally chosen by his father to be his successor. The Riddhapur inscription refers to him as "Hatpadaparigrihita", meaning that he was the one appointed to the throne among all his brothers.

• The Allahabad Prasasti

  As a testimony to his military achievements, Samudra Gupta had a panegyric inscription engraved on an existing Ashokan pillar in Allahabad. This inscription was composed by his court poet, Harishena, and is written in Gupta Brahmi script, blending classical Sanskrit poetry with prose.

  The Allahabad Pillar, originally erected by Ashoka in Kaushambi, was later relocated. In the 16th century, Mughal Emperor Akbar moved it to the Allahabad Fort, where his son Jahangir also added inscriptions.

• Structure of the Allahabad Inscription

  The Allahabad Prasasti, dated between 365-370 A.D., was inscribed towards the later years of Samudra Gupta’s reign after his major military conquests. It divides his campaigns into four distinct phases:

  1. Conquests against nine named kings and some unnamed rulers in the Gangetic plain.
  2. Victories over 12 kings of South India.
  3. Defeats of various forest tribes and local chieftains.
  4. Diplomatic victories over the rulers of frontier kingdoms and the Gana-Sanghas (republics).

  Additionally, the inscription provides information about diplomatic relations that Samudra Gupta maintained with distant kingdoms that were too far for direct military intervention. Through his conquests and administrative policies, Samudra Gupta established the Gupta Empire as the dominant power in India, setting the stage for future rulers to consolidate and expand its influence.

• Conquests of Aryavarta

  From the very beginning of his reign, Samudra Gupta adopted an aggressive military policy. His extensive military campaigns and conquests made him one of the greatest military leaders in Indian history. He successfully expanded his empire through war and annexation.

  Almost immediately after assuming the throne, Samudra Gupta embarked on a campaign against the lesser kingdoms to the west of Magadha. He defeated nine kings and annexed their territories into the Gupta Empire. The names of these defeated rulers were:

  • Achyuta
  • Balvarman
  • Chandravarman
  • Ganapati Naga
  • Matila
  • Nandin
  • Nagadatta
  • Nagasena
  • Rudradeva

  Several rulers were killed in battle, including:

  • Nagasena of Mathura
  • Achyuta of Ahichchhata (modern-day Ramnagar and Bareilly districts of Uttar Pradesh)
  • An unnamed prince of the Kota family

  The inscription describing these conquests uses the term "forcibly rooted up,” indicating the harsh treatment meted out to the defeated rulers. All conquered territories were directly annexed into the Gupta Empire. The exact locations of all nine defeated kingdoms are not clearly documented, but Ganapati Naga is known to have ruled from Padmavati (modern-day Narwar, Madhya Pradesh).

  After consolidating his power in the north, Samudra Gupta turned his attention to the south.

• The Southern Campaign

  The conquest of South India required exceptional military planning, strategic organization, and confident execution. Samudra Gupta excelled in all these aspects. Throughout the Southern Campaign, he followed a three-fold principle of conquest:

  • Grahana – Capturing the enemy king
  • Moksha – Liberating the king
  • Anugraha – Reinstating the defeated ruler

  This policy played a significant role in his successful southern conquests.

• Kings of Dakshinapatha Defeated

  Samudra Gupta waged war against several kings in South India, including:

  • Mahendra of Kosala
  • Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
  • Mantaraja of Kaurala
  • Svamidatta of Kottura
  • A chieftain of Pishtapura (precise name unknown)
  • Damana of Erandapalla
  • Vishnugopa of Kanchi
  • Nilaraja of Avamukta
  • Hastivarman of Vengi
  • Ugrasena of Palakka
  • Kubera of Devarashtra
  • Dhananjaya of Kushalapura

• Route of the Southern Campaign

  Samudra Gupta began his southward march through the Chota Nagpur Plateau, moving towards the eastern coast. His campaign progressed as follows:

  1. He attacked South Kosala (in the Mahanadi Valley) and deposed King Mahendra. The core of Kosala included the regions of Bilaspur, Raipur, and Sambalpur.
  2. He defeated Vyaghra-raja ("Tiger Chief") of Mahakantara, a forest kingdom in Jeypore, Odisha.
  3. He continued his march southwards along the east coast, conquering:
     • Mahendragiri of Pishtapura (modern Pithapuram, Andhra Pradesh)
     • The hill forts of Svamidatta at Kottura (modern Kothoor, Odisha)
     • Mantaraja of Kaurala, near Kolleru Lake (modern Andhra Pradesh)
     • Hastivarman of Vengi, likely a Pallava prince
     • Nilaraja of Avamukta and Vishnugopa of Kanchipuram
  4. He turned westward, defeating:
     • Ugrasena of Palakka (modern Nellore district)
     • Kuvera of Devarashtra (modern Visakhapatnam)
     • Dhananjaya of Kushalapura (modern North Arcot)
  5. He returned north through western Deccan and crossed Khandesh back to his capital.

  This remarkable campaign covered nearly 3,000 miles of difficult terrain over two years and was completed by 350 A.D.

• Impact of the Southern Campaign

  Unlike his northern conquests, where he annexed territories, Samudra Gupta did not attempt to directly integrate the southern kingdoms into his empire. Instead, he followed his three-fold principle:

  • Defeated kings were not permanently displaced.
  • They were allowed to remain in power under Gupta suzerainty.
  • They were required to pay tribute in gold and wealth to the Gupta treasury.

  This pragmatic approach was a masterstroke by Samudra Gupta, recognizing the logistical challenges of ruling distant southern territories from his northern capital.

• Campaign Against the Forest Kingdoms

  Samudra Gupta also waged war against the Atavika Kingdoms (Forest States). His inscriptions claim that he completely subjugated all these tribes. A copper plate inscription from Parvrajaka, the king of Basti, lists 18 forest kingdoms that were defeated. These victories further consolidated Gupta power and expanded the empire’s influence over less developed regions.

  Through his strategic conquests and military genius, Samudra Gupta established himself as one of the greatest conquerors in Indian history.

• The Victorious Career of Samudra Gupta

  The victorious career of Samudra Gupta must have produced a deep impression on the Pratyanta nrupatis or frontier kings of North-East India and the Himalayan region, and the tribal states of the Punjab, Western India, Malwa, and the Central Provinces. These rulers are said to have gratified his imperious command "by giving all kinds of taxes, obeying his orders and coming to perform obeisance."

• Eastern Kingdoms

  The most important among the eastern kingdoms that submitted to the mighty Gupta Emperor were:

  • Samatata – Part of Eastern Bengal bordering on the sea, with its capital probably at Karmmanta.
  • Davaka – A kingdom in present-day Assam.
  • Kamarupa – Roughly corresponding to modern Assam.

  From the Damodarpur plates, we learn that the major portion of Northern Bengal, then known as Pundravardhana-bhukti, formed an integral part of the Gupta Empire from A.D. 443 to A.D 543, governed by a line of Uparikas as vassals of the Gupta Emperor.

• Northern Pratyantas

  The Northern Pratyantas included:

  • Nepal
  • Kartripura – Probably comprising Katarpur in the Jalandhar district and the territory of the Katuria of Kumaun, Garhwal, and Rohilkhand.

• Western and South-Western Tribal States

  The tribal states which paid homage to Samudra Gupta were situated on the western and southwestern fringes of Aryavarta. The most important of these were:

  • Malavas – Occupied parts of the Punjab during Alexander's time and later settled in Eastern Rajasthan.
  • Arjunayanas – May have been connected with the Pandava tribe mentioned by Ptolemy.
  • Yaudheyas – Possibly linked to Yudhishthira’s son in the Mahabharata, ruling areas along the Sutlej.
  • Madrakas – Their capital was at Sakala (modern-day Sialkot, Punjab).
  • Abhiras – Occupied regions in the lower Indus valley and western Rajasthan.
  • Prarjunas, Sanakanikas, Kakas, Kharaparikas – Located in Malwa and the Central Provinces.

• Foreign Relations

  The rise of Samudra Gupta and his new indigenous imperial power could not go unnoticed by the foreign potentates of the North-West Frontier, Malwa, and Surashtra (Kathiawar). These rulers sought to buy peace "by the acts of homage, such as the offer of personal service, the bringing of gifts of maidens, and begging for seals marked with the Garuda sign to allow them to rule over their respective districts and provinces."

  The foreign powers that established diplomatic relations with Samudra Gupta included:

  • Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi – Likely referring to the Kushan dynasty of the northwest, which originated from Devaputra Kanishka.
  • Saka Murundas – Included the northern chiefs of Scythian nationality and the Saka chieftains of Surashtra and Central India.
  • People of Simhala (Sri Lanka) and other island dwellers.

• The Empire

  By the end of his conquests, Samudra Gupta had established unquestioned control over Aryavarta, the Aryan homeland. His core territorial holding included:

  • West Bengal
  • Bihar
  • Uttar Pradesh
  • Madhya Pradesh
  • Eastern Rajasthan

  His direct rule stretched from the Hooghly in the east to the Chambal in the west, and from the foothills of the Himalayas in the north to the River Narmada in the south—a vast empire by any standard.

  Samudra Gupta’s sovereignty was acknowledged by:

  • The Kushans ruling in Gandhara and Kabul.
  • The descendants of Satrap Rudradaman ruling in Gujarat and parts of Malwa.
  • The frontier kingdoms of Assam and the Gangetic delta.
  • The King of Nepal.
  • The King of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and other islands, possibly referring to Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia.

• Interaction with Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

  Around the year 360 A.D., the King of Ceylon, Siri Meghavarna (A.D. 352-379), sent two Buddhist monks, one of whom was his brother, to visit a monastery built by Asoka Maurya in Bodh Gaya. However, they found Indian hospitality lacking and struggled to find a comfortable place to stay.

  On their return, the monks complained to the King, who decided to build a monastery in India for Sri Lankan pilgrims. A mission was sent to Samudra Gupta’s court with gifts of gems and valuables, seeking permission for the construction. Samudra Gupta, flattered by the attention, granted the request.King Meghavarna built a splendid monastery near the sacred tree, described as:

  • Three stories high, with six halls.
  • Three towers with subsidiary stupas.
  • Protected by a strong wall 30 to 40 feet high.
  • Artistically decorated, containing a Buddha statue made of gold and silver, studded with gems.

  The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited the monastery in the 7th century and reported that around 1000 monks of the Sthavira school of Mahayana Buddhism resided there at the time. Today, the site where the monastery once stood remains an extensive mound.

• The Revival of the Aswamedha Rite

  After six centuries of Mauryan rule, Samudra Gupta stood on the threshold of a pan-Indian Empire. He proclaimed the universality of his empire by reviving and performing the ancient rite of Aswamedha (the horse sacrifice), perhaps for the first time since the one conducted by Pushyamitra Shunga centuries earlier.

  The ceremony was conducted with great splendour, with reports stating that 100,000 cows were gifted, presumably to Brahmans as per the custom of the period, and that millions of gold and silver coins were distributed. A small number of coins minted for the occasion have been discovered, revealing the Vaishnavite leanings of the Emperor.

  However, the term “conqueror”, as appropriate to a devotee-king of Vishnu, is absent from these coins, leading to the belief that Samudra Gupta may have considered himself an incarnation of Vishnu. The coins also depict the Garuda of Vishnu, the umbrella insignia of the Samrat, and the wheel-turning pose of the Chakravartin.

  Another memorial to the event is a carved stone figure of a horse, discovered in northern Oudh and currently displayed at the Lucknow Museum. The brief inscription on the horse carving mentions Samudra Gupta and the Aswamedha. Following this event, he proclaimed himself a Chakravartin (universal ruler), marking the emergence of a new tone in Indian kingship: he was a mortal only in observing human rites, but otherwise a god dwelling on Earth.

• Samudra Gupta vs. Napoleon

  In his acclaimed book on the history of Medieval India, Vincent Smith, a historian of great merit, refers to Samudra Gupta as the “Napoleon of Ancient India”. This comparison, however, is highly unjust for several reasons:

  • Chronological Disparity: Samudra Gupta lived centuries before Napoleon, making it unfair to consider him a lesser copy of a later conqueror.
  • Strategic Wisdom: Unlike Napoleon, Samudra Gupta never met his Waterloo because he refrained from overextending his empire.
  • Genius in Consolidation: He was not just a conqueror but an astute statesman, consolidating and administering his vast kingdom with unmatched skill.

• The Emperor

  Samudra Gupta remained relatively unknown until the early 1900s, although there was never any confusion regarding his name or lineage. His fame was uncovered through archaeological research and the meticulous study of ancient inscriptions, corroborated by historical narratives.

  Court eulogies that celebrate a king’s rule often contain exaggerations and bias. This is a universal truth in history, and writings about Samudra Gupta, especially by his court poet, must be assessed with this in mind.

  However, there is no doubt that Samudra Gupta was an exceptionally capable ruler. He was a great patron of the arts, and the renowned Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu is believed to have benefited from his patronage. He cultivated learned individuals and engaged with them regularly, displaying a keen intellect and polished wisdom.

• The Emperor’s Cultural Contributions

  Samudra Gupta was proficient in music and poetry. Rare coins discovered depict him seated on a high-backed couch, playing the veena, an Indian lute. Though no examples of his poetry survive, his aesthetic sense suggests that he was at least a passable poet. The overall image that emerges is of a genius, equally adept at warfare, art, and literature.

• The Titles of Samudra Gupta

  Throughout his reign, Samudra Gupta was known by various titles that reflected his military prowess and royal stature:

  • Apratiratha – Unrivalled car-warrior
  • Aprativaryavirya – Of irresistible valour
  • Kritanta-parasu – Axe of death
  • Sarvarajochchhetta – Uprooter of all kings
  • Vyaghraparakrama – Possessed of the strength of a tiger
  • Asva-medhaparakrama – Whose might was demonstrated by the horse sacrifice
  • Parakramanka – Marked with prowess

  Most of these epithets appear on specific coin types issued by Samudra Gupta, reinforcing his image as a warrior-king.

• Governance Style of Samudra Gupta

  His governance style has been recorded in rich but allusive phrasing, often written more in rhetoric than with a direct connection to reality. Although he defeated most of his contemporary kings in battle and could have annexed their territories, he chose not to do so.

  Samudra Gupta made no attempt to annex the conquered territories beyond the immediate region of Arya-Varta. Instead, he imposed one-time tributes, reinstated the defeated kings, and withdrew the Gupta forces. After exacting tributes, he allowed the defeated rulers to continue governing their lands with minimal bureaucratic interference. This approach created a network of feudatory states surrounding the core Gupta Empire.

  This strategy sharply contrasts with the Mauryan administration, which was highly intrusive and micromanaging at its peak. Unlike the directly administered Mauryan Empire, Samudra Gupta’s rule was more of a feudatory arrangement, wherein the sovereignty of vassal kings remained intact without an obvious bureaucratic structure.

• Samudra Gupta as a Chakravartin

  Samudra Gupta was proclaimed a Chakravartin (world ruler) upon completing the Aswamedha sacrifice. However, being a Chakravartin did not require direct governance over vast territories. The concept only necessitated nominal submission by vassal kings.

  Such submission was typically demonstrated through attendance at the Chakravartin’s court on ceremonial occasions. The status of a Chakravartin depended not only on the number of kingdoms under his nominal sovereignty but also on the status of the rulers who accepted his suzerainty while remaining independent.

  This arrangement reinforced the threefold principle of conquest, as there was a vested interest for the conquering Emperor to reinstall defeated kings on their thrones rather than replace them.

• The Final Years and Succession

  The exact year of Samudra Gupta’s death is unknown. However, it is certain that he lived a long life and that his reign was marked by uninterrupted prosperity and peace for nearly half a century.

  In keeping with his strategic wisdom, he sought to ensure a smooth transition of power. He nominated his son, born to Queen Datta Devi, as his successor while he was still the crown prince. His own struggle for the throne at the beginning of his reign may have influenced his decision to establish a stable succession plan.

  There is a story about his immediate successor, Rama Gupta, being weak and forced into a dishonorable treaty by the Saka Satraps. This raises two possibilities:

  • Samudra Gupta may not have fully subjugated the Sakas, contrary to what some inscriptions claim.
  • The Sakas, ruling a territory far from the Gupta center of power, may have revolted upon his death.

  The final subjugation of the Sakas and the conquest of Malwa and Gujarat were left to his successor. His beautifully minted gold coins were the initial inspiration for calling the Gupta Dynasty the “Golden Age” of India.

• The Family of Samudra Gupta

  Samudra Gupta’s virtuous and faithful wife, possibly Datta Devi, is mentioned in an Eran inscription dating to his reign.

  No genuine dated documents from his rule survive. The Nalanda and Gaya grants are dated to years 5 and 9 respectively, but these records are considered unreliable due to uncertainties in their interpretation. Vincent Smith proposed A.D. 330-375 as the period of Samudra Gupta’s reign, though this remains conjectural. Since the earliest confirmed date of the next ruler is A.D. 380-381, it is likely that Samudra Gupta died sometime after A.D. 375. One of his final acts as emperor was the selection of his successor. He chose Chandra Gupta, his son by Datta Devi, to inherit the throne.

Chandra Gupta II Vikramaditya

Accepted history states that Emperor Samudra Gupta, the Chakravartin of Arya-Varta, was succeeded by his son, Chandra Gupta II, born to Queen Datta Devi. As the anointed heir apparent, he later claimed the title ‘Vikramaditya’, meaning ‘the sun of valour’. However, there is a mystery surrounding this widely accepted version of events.

The Story of Devichandraguptam

The role of literature as a historical source is often limited to supplementing and confirming details provided by epigraphic records. However, at times, literary sources bring new historical insights to light. A notable example is the case of Samudra Gupta’s successor.

Gupta inscriptions universally recognize Chandra Gupta II as the immediate successor of Samudra Gupta. However, a Sanskrit play titled Devichandragupta, authored by Visakhadatta, presents a different narrative.

The play’s second act describes a dramatic event:

• Rama Gupta, the elder son of Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II’s brother, was initially the king.
• Rama Gupta agreed to hand over his legally wedded wife, Queen Dhruvadevi, to the Sakas to appease his fearful subjects.
• The cowardly act angered Dhruvadevi, who lamented her husband's weakness.
• In response, Prince Chandra Gupta II disguised himself as Dhruvadevi and infiltrated the Saka camp.
• Using this stratagem, he killed the Saka king.
• After this victory, Chandra Gupta II murdered his brother, Rama Gupta, and married Dhruvadevi.

The play’s author, Visakhadatta, may have been a contemporary of Chandra Gupta II and could have witnessed these events firsthand. Several ancient poets also reference this story:

• Banabhatta, in his Harsacharita.
• Sankararya (1713 AD), in his commentary on Harsacharita.
• Abul Hasan Ali (1026 AD), in Majmal-ut-Tawarikh, which was a translation of an earlier Hindu work.

Epigraphic records further support this story. The Gupta inscriptions confirm that:

• Chandra Gupta II married his brother’s widow, Dhruvadevi.
• Their son, Kumara Gupta, succeeded Chandra Gupta II.

In the Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsa I (871 AD), an inscription states:

“That donor, in the Kaliyuga, who was of the Gupta lineage, having killed (his) brother, we are told, seized (his) kingdom and wife.”

Even the Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang wrote about a great Gupta sovereign, Vikramaditya, renowned for his generosity.

Archaeological evidence from Vaishali includes Dhruvadevi’s seals, which identify her as the crowned queen of Chandra Gupta II. Hindu legal texts from the era suggest that such marriages were socially acceptable.

Early Difficulties

By circa 378 AD, following the short and dishonorable reign of Rama Gupta, Chandra Gupta II ascended the throne. This marked the beginning of the glorious Vikramaditya tradition.

Samudra Gupta had left behind a vast but loosely unified empire, functioning as a federation of autonomous states bound by common interests. The core states of Hind were integral to the empire, while the frontier states in the east, north, and northwest were only loosely allied.

After Samudra Gupta’s death, there were attempts at disintegration. During Rama Gupta’s reign:

• The Kushana king attempted to exploit the empire’s instability.
• However, Chandra Gupta II successfully repelled this threat.

The Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription of Chandra Gupta II mentions his victory over the Bhalikas by crossing the seven mouths of the Sindhu. This suggests he strengthened the empire’s northwestern borders and solidified control over Punjab.

Chandra Gupta II's Presence in Mathura

Chandra Gupta II was the first Gupta sovereign whose records have been found in Mathura. His inscription there praises:

• The glorious rule of his father, Samudra Gupta.
• His own devotion to the Bhagavata religion (Vaishnavism).

His silver coins have been discovered throughout the eastern Punjab, extending to the banks of the Chenab.

The Mathura Pillar Inscription

Another important inscription was discovered in a Mathura garden. This stone pillar inscription consists of seventeen lines but is damaged in several places.

The most significant loss is the part containing the Gupta era and regnal year, which would have provided an exact date. However, the inscription still holds immense historical value:

• It confirms that Maharajadhiraja Chandra Gupta II, the worthy son of Samudra Gupta, ruled from circa 380 AD.
• It records the construction of a temple dedicated to Shiva, named Kapilesvara.

The pillar also features a carving of a naked Sivagana, reinforcing its Saivite affiliation. This inscription is one of the earliest dated records from Chandra Gupta II’s reign.

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With remarkable strategic insight, diplomacy, and valor, Chandra Gupta II built upon his father’s legacy and strengthened the Gupta Empire. His rise to power and his achievements marked the beginning of an era that would later be celebrated as the Golden Age of India.

War Against the Saka Kshatrapas

The consolidation of the northwestern dominions of his empire was completed by Chandra Gupta II within two years immediately after his accession. He first strengthened his power from Jalandhar Doab to Mathura before turning his attention to the southern part of the northwestern frontier, where the Kshatrapas had begun to revive aggressively.

• Changes in Kshatrapa Rule

  [Rapson’s investigations based on Kshatrapa coinage] indicate that between 305 AD and 348 AD, significant political changes occurred:

  • The title of Mahakshatrapa disappeared.
  • Initially, there were two Kshatrapa rulers, but later, Kshatrapa coinage ceased altogether.
  • Foreign invasions, first under Pravarasena I Vakataka and later under Samudra Gupta, weakened Kshatrapa control.
• Revival and Fall of the Kshatrapas

  The expansion of Vakataka power under Prthvisena I (as per the [Ajanta inscription]) further weakened the Kshatrapas between 351 AD and 364 AD. However, after Prthvisena I’s death in 375 AD, the Kshatrapas attempted a comeback.

  • Rudrasena III restored the title Mahakshatrapa and launched military campaigns to regain Ujjain.
  • His successor, Mahakshatrapa Svami Simhasena, continued this offensive (known dates: 382 or 384 AD).
• Chandra Gupta II’s Conquest of Malwa

  By this time, Chandra Gupta II had secured the northwestern frontiers and turned his focus to the Kshatrapas. Numismatic evidence suggests that the Gupta conquest of the west took place around 409 AD, but an inscription at Udayagiri cave suggests it happened as early as 401 AD.

  • The Udayagiri Inscriptions
    • 401-402 AD: An inscription records a gift by a Maharaja of the Sanakanika tribe, indicating that Chandra Gupta II had already occupied Malwa.
    • Another inscription: Records the excavation of a Shiva temple by the minister Virasena ([also called Saba, a Sandhivigrahika (Minister of Peace & War)]).
    • The inscriptions indicate that Chandra Gupta II personally led the campaign.
  • Final Conquest of the Kshatrapas
    • Samudra Gupta had already subjugated parts of Malwa, but the Kshatrapas revived under Rudrasena III and Simhasena.
    • Chandra Gupta II launched a gradual conquest of the region.
    • The Sanchi stone inscription (412-413 AD) confirms his full control over Malwa.
    • Gupta silver coins prove that he ended Kshatrapa rule in Kathiawar.

Gupta Empire under Chandra Gupta II

Fa Hien recorded that the original Gupta capital was Pataliputra, but Chandra Gupta II later made Ujjain his second capital. This shift was likely due to administrative needs following the wars against the Sakas and the reorganization of newly acquired territories.

• Expansion of the Gupta Empire

  The empire now stretched:

  • West: From Kathiawar Peninsula
  • East: To the borders of Eastern Bengal
  • North: From the Himalayas
  • South: To the Narmada River

  The empire now included:

  • Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Eastern Punjab, and Central India (Malwa, North Gujarat, Kathiawar).

  The Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription reflects Chandra Gupta II’s claim as the "sole sovereign of the Earth."

• Impact on Trade and Economy
  • Trade Flourished: Gupta control over Kathiawar ports boosted European and African trade.
  • Roman Gold Influx: Indian goods were exchanged for Roman gold, enriching the economy.
  • Coinage: The prosperity is evident from the large variety of coins issued by Chandra Gupta II.

Matrimonial Alliance with the Vakatakas

Chandra Gupta II’s western expansion was supported by a strategic alliance with the Vakatakas. Rather than fighting a war, he chose a peaceful diplomatic approach.

• Marriage Alliance

  [To prevent the Vakatakas from becoming a rival power], Chandra Gupta II arranged the marriage of his daughter, Prabhavatigupta, to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler.

  • This alliance ensured Vakataka support for the Gupta Empire.
  • During the regency of Prabhavatigupta, Gupta influence over the Vakatakas remained strong.
  • The relationship continued during the reign of Pravarasena II.

Through military conquests and diplomatic alliances, Chandra Gupta II expanded and secured the Gupta Empire, making it one of the greatest empires in Indian history.

Administration under Chandra Gupta II

Chandra Gupta II was the first Gupta sovereign to assume the title of Vikramaditya. He was also styled as Simhavikrama, Simhacandra, Sahasanka, and Vikramanka. Despite ruling over a vast empire, his administration was highly efficient, ensuring that even the most remote provinces felt the influence of the imperial headquarters.

• Provincial Administration

  Insights into Chandra Gupta II’s administration come from the Basarh excavations and the Damodarpur copperplates. Several clay seals unearthed at Basarh reveal significant details:

  • Dhruvadevi held charge of a province under the emperor.
  • One clay seal, discovered by Fleet, bore the inscription: “Mahadevi Sri Dhruvasvamini, wife of Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandra Gupta, and mother of Maharaja Sri Govinda Gupta.”
  • Seals of various officers and private individuals were also found, including one belonging to Sri Ghatotkaca Gupta.
  • The variety of seals suggests that they were made in a local workshop, possibly run by a potter.
• Hierarchy of Officials and Administrative Divisions

  The empire was divided into several administrative divisions and subdivisions, each managed by a hierarchy of officials. References to the staff and subordinate officers indicate a well-structured bureaucracy.

  • The Parisad of Udanakupa is mentioned, showing that the Parisad remained a crucial part of the Hindu government system.

Growth of Guilds and Commerce

Besides administrative efficiency, Chandra Gupta II’s reign saw the rise of guilds and commercial corporations. A remarkable example is recorded in the Mandasor inscription (437 and 473 AD).

• Migration of Silk Weavers

  A guild of silk weavers from a disorderly province migrated to the Gupta Empire, seeking better opportunities to practice their craft.

  • Silk weaving flourished under Gupta rule.
  • Over a generation, the guild prospered so much that some members took up astronomy as a leisurely pursuit.
• Economic Growth and Overseas Trade

  The stability provided by the Gupta administration facilitated both internal and overseas trade.

  • Luxury goods like silk fabrics gained prominence.
  • Economic prosperity is evident from the extensive use of gold and silver coins issued during this period.

Vikramaditya – The Person

Like his father, Chandra Gupta II was a great swordsman and a courageous warrior. He was not only a military leader but also a just ruler, diplomat, and statesman. His ability to create alliances further strengthened the Gupta kingdom.

• Military and Diplomatic Prowess
  • After conquering Western India, he established diplomatic relations with King Ardashir of Persia.
  • This alliance boosted trade and cultural exchanges between the two empires.
• Patronage of Arts and Culture

  Chandra Gupta II was a renowned patron of arts. The presence of the Navaratnas (Nine Gems) in his court highlights his commitment to intellectual and artistic excellence.

• Royal Titles and Coinage
  • He assumed exalted titles such as Vikramaditya, Maharajadhiraja, and Paramabhagavata.
  • His reign saw the minting of fine gold and silver coins, reflecting the empire’s prosperity.

The Navaratnas (Nine Gems) of Vikramaditya’s Court

As a great patron of art and learning, Chandra Gupta II’s court attracted some of the brightest minds of the time. These Nine Gems (Navaratnas) contributed significantly to various fields of knowledge.

• List of the Navaratnas
  • Dhanvantari: An early medical practitioner, considered the founder of Ayurveda.
  • Kshapanaka: Possibly a Jain monk named Siddhasena, an expert astrologer.
  • Amarasimha: A Sanskrit grammarian and poet, known for Amarakosha, a Sanskrit thesaurus.
  • Shanku: An expert in geography, though little is known about him.
  • Vetalabhatta: A Maga Brahmin and the author of Niti-pradeepa (The Lamp of Conduct), renowned for his expertise in tantric sciences.
  • Ghatakarpara: A sculptor and architect, also a distinguished poet.
  • Kalidasa: The greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, known for:
    • Plays: Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam, Vikramorvasiyam.
    • Epic Poems: Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava.
    • Lyrical Poems: Meghaduta, Rtusamhara.
  • Varahamihira: A great astronomer and mathematician, compiler of Pancha Siddhantika and Brihat-Samhita.
  • Vararuchi: A poet and grammarian, considered the founder of the Vikrama Era (57 B.C.).

Through his administrative brilliance, military strength, and patronage of arts and sciences, Chandra Gupta II solidified the legacy of the Gupta Empire.

Fa-Hein’s Visit

Fa-Hein (also known as Fa-Hsien or Faxian) was the first of the three renowned Chinese pilgrim travelers who visited India between the 5th and 7th centuries in search of knowledge, manuscripts, and relics. He traveled extensively across the Indian subcontinent during the reign of Chandra Gupta II and stayed for about 10 years (400-410 AD).

• Observations of Fa-Hein

  His writings provide a contemporary account of India’s state, offering insights from an intelligent and articulate foreigner’s perspective. Though his focus was primarily on Buddhist religious activities, he also documented:

  • Everyday life and general conditions in the Gupta empire.
  • The administration and ruling system under Vikramaditya.
  • The happiness and prosperity of the people.

  The picture that emerges from his writings is that of a rich, peaceful, and prosperous country.

General Condition of the Gupta Empire under Chandra Gupta II

Fa-Hein’s account provides reliable insights into the conditions prevailing in North India during the early 5th century AD.

• Well-being of the People
  • The population was numerous and happy.
  • There was no register of households and no necessity for magistrates or rigid regulations.
  • Capital punishment was abolished by Chandra Gupta II.
  • He installed a series of hospitals to provide healthcare.
• Administration and Generosity

  Chandra Gupta II ensured that his officers were well-paid, leading to an efficient administration. His philanthropic nature was evident in his generous donations:

  • He frequently distributed gold coins (dinaras and suvarnas) among his subjects.
  • His generosity was widely recognized, even beyond India.

Religion under Chandra Gupta II

Chandra Gupta II had a broad and tolerant religious outlook, as evidenced by inscriptions and ministerial records.

• Religious Inscriptions

  The religious diversity of his rule is reflected in various inscriptions:

  • Udayagiri cave inscription (Shaivism).
  • Mathura stone inscription (Shaivism).
  • Sanchi inscription (Buddhism).
  • Another Udayagiri cave inscription (Vaishnavism).
• Ministers of Different Faiths
  • Amrakaradeva – A Buddhist.
  • Virasena Saba – A Shaiva.
  • Sikharasvamin – A Shaiva.
• Horse-Sacrifice Tradition

  Some historians suggest that Chandra Gupta II performed a horse-sacrifice, following the tradition of his father, Samudra Gupta. A stone horse in Nagawa near Benares bears an inscription that may commemorate this event.

• Fa-Hein’s Religious Observations

  Although Fa-Hein praised the prosperity and good governance of the empire, his writings suggest that Buddhism held a predominant position at that time.

Coins of Chandra Gupta II

The study of coins provides crucial insights into Chandra Gupta II’s rule and economy. His innovative coinage marked a significant transformation.

• Hindu Influence on Coinage
  • The evidence from coins suggests that the rulers were Hindus, while Buddhism had declined.
• Types of Coins Introduced

  Chandra Gupta II introduced several distinct coin types:

  • Seated Goddess Type – Replacing earlier throned goddess depictions.
  • Couch Type
  • Umbrella Type
  • Simha-Parakrama (Lion Courage) Type
  • Horseman Type
• Expansion of Currency
  • Chandra Gupta II introduced silver and copper coins.
  • His successors Kumara Gupta I and Skanda Gupta extended the use of silver coins.
• Fa-Hein on Currency

  Fa-Hein mentioned that cowries were widely used for petty transactions. However, inscriptions confirm that gold (suvarnas and dinaras) was the main currency generously distributed by the Gupta rulers.

Family of Chandra Gupta II

Chandra Gupta II had multiple children, including his eldest son Kumara Gupta I, who succeeded him.

• His Family Members
  • Prabhavatigupta – His daughter.
  • Kumara Gupta I – His successor.
  • Govinda Gupta – Possibly ruled as a viceroy.
  • Ghatotkaca Gupta – Also believed to have served as a viceroy.
• Legacy and Expansion of the Empire

  Chandra Gupta II became the supreme ruler of Northern India after:

  • Defeating the Scythians in Punjab and Western India.
  • Forming a matrimonial alliance with the Vakatakas, neutralizing his main rival.

Chandra Gupta II ruled as the paramount sovereign of India, and his rule ended between 413-415 AD, as indicated by inscriptions found at Sanchi and Bilsad.

Gupta Empire after Chandragupta II

Chandragupta Vikramaditya left the empire in an exalted state, ensuring national power, prosperity, and stable governance. The empire had:

• Secure borders
• Thriving trade (both internal and external)
• No major revolts or insurgencies

This era is known as the Golden Age of Indian history.

Rule of Kumara Gupta I (A.D. 415–455)

After Chandragupta Vikramaditya, his son Kumara Gupta I ascended the throne and ruled for 40 years. The absence of any recorded succession struggle indicates the stability of the empire.

• Coins and inscriptions confirm peaceful governance.
• Performed the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) to assert sovereignty.

However, despite his long reign, there is an extraordinary lack of records about his rule.

Pushyamitra Invasion (A.D. 450)

Around A.D. 450, the empire faced an invasion by the Pushyamitras from the Narmada region, leading to:

• Considerable instability in the empire.
• Possible hastening of Kumara Gupta's death in A.D. 455.

Around the same time, the Hunas (White Huns) erupted through the northwestern passes, marking the beginning of the Gupta decline.

Skanda Gupta’s Rule and Huna Invasions (A.D. 455–467)

Skanda Gupta, the crown prince, took the throne and faced two major challenges:

• Pushyamitra Rebellion: He first contained this internal threat.
• Huna Invasion: He then focused on repelling the Huns.

As an experienced and brilliant military leader, Skanda Gupta successfully defeated the Hunas.

To commemorate his victory, he erected a pillar in Bhitari (Ghazipur), which contains details of his triumph.

Chronicles of Huna Invasions

Skanda Gupta's inscriptions provide valuable records:

• Saurashtra Inscription (A.D. 458): Mentions his victory over the Huns and states that Viceroy Parnadatta rebuilt a lake embankment in the Girnar Hills and constructed a Vishnu temple.
• A column in Gorakhpur, along with other inscriptions from the west, confirms that Skanda Gupta ruled over a vast territory.
• The construction of a Sun Temple in Bulandshahr (A.D. 465) is the last evidence of relative peace during his reign.

Resurgence of the Huna Invasions

Despite Skanda Gupta’s efforts, the Hunas launched a ferocious attack a few years later, resulting in:

• The occupation of Gandhara and North West Punjab.
• The ouster of the Kushans from their traditional power base.

By A.D. 470, the Hunas started advancing into Gupta India. The empire struggled to contain them.

Economic Decline

The constant warfare led to economic hardships.

• The gold content in coins reduced from 108 grains to 73 grains.
• Further debasement of currency signified financial decline.

Skanda Gupta died around A.D. 467, marking the beginning of the empire’s collapse.

Post-Skanda Gupta Period: The Struggle for Survival

After Skanda Gupta's death, the empire continued to exist, but in a much weaker form.

• Guptas ruled only the eastern provinces, with Magadha as their core.
• Pura Gupta, Skanda Gupta’s brother, ascended the throne but ruled for a brief period.
• His only significant achievement was his attempt to restore the purity of Gupta coinage, though only partially successful.

Final Decline of the Gupta Dynasty

The Guptas were unable to resist the continuous Huna invasions, leading to:

• A rapid decline in central authority.
• An uncertain succession of rulers, as different administrative seals suggest multiple claimants.
• By the late 5th century, the Hunas completely broke through into northern India.

Toramana, a Huna ruler, consolidated power in Punjab and invaded Gupta territory.

Though Narasimhagupta II (c. A.D. 495) received support from regional feudatories, the Gupta Empire continued to weaken.

Conclusion: The Legacy of the Gupta Empire

The Gupta period is remembered as India’s Golden Age due to:

• The creation of a unified Indian subcontinent.
• Political stability through effective administration.
• Economic growth due to trade and commerce.
• The revival of Hinduism alongside religious tolerance.
• Major scientific, mathematical, and literary achievements.

Despite its decline, the Gupta administration and cultural advancements influenced future dynasties.

The dream of a Pan-Indian Empire ended with the Guptas, only to be briefly revived by Harshavardhana in the 7th century.