Kushana Empire: Kanishka, Buddhism, and Trade in Ancient India

Rise of Kushanas

The story of the Kushanas begins with the migration of the Yueh-chi, a nomadic people displaced by the Xiongnu. Around 165-128 BCE, they journeyed from Dunhuang, traversing the Tarim Basin before settling in Bactria. Among the Yueh-chi were five clans, one of which would rise to unparalleled power—the Kushanas.

From scattered nomadic groups, the Kushanas forged a mighty empire. This transformation united the fragmented Indo-Iranian borderlands, forming a vast Central Asian Empire stretching from Uzbekistan and Afghanistan to northern India, even reaching Bhagalpur in Bihar.

• A key testament to their expansive rule is the Rabatak inscription of Kanishka I.
• Written in Bactrian, this inscription provides evidence of Kushana control extending to the Ganga valley.

Kushana Rulers: Succession, Divine Status, and Their Lineage

The lineage of the Kushanas, detailed in the Rabatak inscription, sheds light on their succession.

• The founding ruler, Kujula Kadphises, united the five Yueh-chi tribes and initiated Indian incursions, securing Kabul and Kashmir.
• His successor, Vima Kadphises, was revered as a divine figure.
• His coins depict him with a nimbus, symbolizing divinity.
• The Dasht-i-Nawur inscription bestows upon him the title "Law of the Living World" (Dom(r)a-ata : D’m-arta).
• Vasishka, another ruler, was honored as "devamanusha" (god in human form) in the Kamra inscription.
• Kanishka I was deified, being called "Bago" (God himself) in the Rabatak inscription.

Kanishka I: Territorial Expansion, Imperial Titles, and Empire Peak

Under Kanishka I, the Kushana Empire reached its peak. His reign is traditionally dated to 78-144 CE, with 78 CE often linked to the Saka Era, though some scholars argue this marks his accession.

The Rabatak inscription vividly captures the vastness of Kanishka’s empire.

• His domain spanned major cities, including:
  • Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra, and Sri-Campa in the Ganges-Yamuna valley.
• A grand statue near Mathura, inscribed with "Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, Kanishka," emphasized his divine rule.
• His titles reflected his universal ambition:
  • maharajatiraja (King of Kings)
  • daivaputra (Son of Heaven)
  • soter (Savior)
  • Kaisara (Caesar)

In a bid to solidify his legacy, Kanishka fortified his northwestern stronghold:

• He renamed Purushapura (modern-day Peshawar) to Kanishkapura.
• There, he constructed a colossal stupa, drawing travelers and pilgrims from distant lands.

Thus, through military conquests, religious patronage, and strategic titles, the Kushanas left an indelible mark on history, bridging cultures across Central and South Asia.

Kushana Influence: Trade, Culture, and Connectivity

The Kushana period (1st-3rd centuries CE) was a time of intense political, economic, religious, and cultural exchange between South and Central Asia. Numerous archaeological findings, artistic artifacts, coins, and inscriptions highlight these connections.

At the heart of this vast network was Kanishka, whose dominion over Transoxiana and Bactria made the Kushana Empire a pivotal hub along the Silk Road. This facilitated extensive trade between China, West Asia, and the Mediterranean.

• The empire also maintained direct trade with the Indo-Roman world via India’s western coastline.
• The Kushanas adopted and adapted foreign influences:
  • Kujula Kadphises, the first ruler, took on the title "Great King, King of Kings".
  • His coinage bore influences from Saka and Parthian styles, symbolizing cultural assimilation.

Successors of Kanishka I: Huvishka and Beyond

Following Kanishka I, several rulers continued the Kushana legacy, with Huvishka standing out as a dominant successor.

• Huvishka ruled for over three decades, leaving behind a diverse collection of gold and copper coinage.
• His reign is documented through inscriptions from Mathura and Wardak (year 51), proving his authority west of Kabul.
• His coins illustrate the empire’s cosmopolitan nature by depicting deities from:
  • Indic
  • Iranian
  • Central Asian
  • Hellenistic
  pantheons.

Other notable successors include:

• The Ara inscription references Kanishka II.
• Vasudeva I ruled for over three decades (years 64/67 to 98), with inscriptions confirming Kushana dominance in Mathura.
• His successors, Kanishka III and Vasudeva II, are primarily known through their coinage.
• Vasudeva II, the last recognized Kushana ruler, witnessed the empire's decline.
• His diminished realm eventually succumbed to the Sassanid ruler Shapur I of Iran.

Kushana Governance: Dual Rule and Satrapies

The Kushanas established a distinctive administrative structure characterized by hereditary dual rule.

• This system allowed for simultaneous governance by a senior and junior ruler, indicating a level of decentralization.
• The satrap system, originally inherited from the Sakas, was further refined.
  • The empire was divided into multiple satrapies, each overseen by a satrap.

Through trade, governance, and cultural synthesis, the Kushanas forged an empire that connected diverse civilizations, leaving a lasting imprint on South and Central Asia.

Kushana Pantheon and Religious Policies

The Kushanas incorporated various local deities into their religious framework, as reflected in their coinage. According to Rosenfield, the selection of reverse types on coins signified the nomination of certain deities as "divine companions and supporters of the monarchy," serving a propagandist role. The inclusion of diverse gods amplified Kanishka's stature and influence.

The Kushana pantheon was deeply influenced by Iranian religious ideas, particularly during Kanishka's reign:

• His coins predominantly featured Iranian deities with Graeco-Bactrian names.
• The Rabatak inscription affirms that the Kushanas revered Iranian gods, with Nana as the primary deity.
• The inclusion of the Buddha (Boddo) on Kanishka’s coins, alongside deities such as Siva, Mithra, and Ahurmazda, equated the Buddha’s significance with these gods, hinting at a divine role for Kanishka himself.

Despite his inclination toward Bactrian religious traditions, Kanishka’s successor, Huvishka, took a more inclusive approach:

• His numismatic pantheon incorporated Greek, Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Zoroastrian deities.
• The presence of Alexandrian and Roman deities suggests a strategy to accommodate Roman merchants engaged in the Indian trade network.

The Kushana Empire flourished alongside the Silk Road, and the reigns of Kanishka I and Huvishka coincided with its peak:

• Their coinage reflected a multicultural outlook, reinforcing their role as facilitators of trade and cultural exchange.
• Deities such as Skanda, Kumara, Vishakha, and Mahasena appeared separately in Huvishka’s coinage but were later merged into Karttikeya in Brahmanical tradition.

The religious policies of the Kushanas reflected religious pluralism:

• Although Iranian religion held prominence, no single faith dominated the empire.
• The depiction of diverse deities on their coinage acknowledges the co-existence of various local traditions.

Kushana Divine Claims and Dynastic Sanctuaries

Beyond numismatic depictions, the Kushana rulers reinforced their divine claims through the construction of dynastic sanctuaries:

• Known as Bagolango or Bogopouro in Bactrian and devakula in Sanskrit/Prakrit, these temples were dedicated to the worship of the ruling dynasty.
• Vima Kadphises initiated the construction of two key royal cult centers:
  • One at Mat, near Mathura.
  • Another at Surkh Kotal.
• Kanishka I later completed the sanctuary at Surkh Kotal, naming it the 'Kanishka Oanindo-sanctuary'.
• Additional Kushana dynastic sanctuaries have been discovered at Khalchayan and Airtam (Uzbekistan), reinforcing their image as 'God-like Kings'.

These sanctuaries housed life-sized portraits of three generations of Kushana rulers:

• The Rabatak inscription of Kanishka I records the construction of a Nana sanctuary (bago-laggo).
• This sanctuary featured images of:
  • Kujula Kadphises
  • Vima Taktu
  • Vima Kadphises
  • Kanishka I
• Kanishka was explicitly referred to as 'bago' (God himself) in this inscription.

Scholars suggest that the Kushana practice of deifying rulers and worshipping their images contributed to the establishment of the Cult of the Emperor:

• This cult functioned as a unifying force within the empire.
• It accommodated the diverse ethnic, linguistic, religious, and cultural traditions of the vast Kushana realm.

Interaction and Integration: Trade and Royal Symbolism

The Kushanas strengthened connections between the Indo-Iranian borderlands and the Gangetic Doab:

• They integrated major urban centers into their empire.
• Important cities such as Taxila and Mathura played crucial roles in facilitating trade and governance.

These cities, strategically located on trade routes linking the Gangetic region with Northwest India and Afghanistan, enabled economic and cultural integration.

The Kushanas also employed royal symbolism to consolidate their rule:

• They established a dynastic sanctuary at Mathura, signifying a deeper relationship with the region beyond mere political control.
• This reflected their commitment to integrating the local religious and cultural landscape into their imperial ideology.

Through religious adaptation, divine claims, and strategic urban centers, the Kushanas fostered a syncretic empire that connected multiple regions and traditions.

Detailed study on Kushanas and their expansion

Overview of the Kushan Empire

• The Kushan Empire (c. First–Third Centuries) reached its cultural zenith circa 105 – 250 C.E., expanding from Tajikistan through Afghanistan and Pakistan into the Ganges River valley in northern India.
• The Kushan tribe, part of the Yuezhi confederation, consisted of Indo-European peoples from the eastern Tarim Basin in China, potentially linked to the Tocharians, establishing the empire.
• The emergence of the expansive Kushan Empire from the first century AD until its decline in the third century saw significant political unification across Central Asia, encompassing regions from modern-day India and Pakistan to the Iranian borders.

• Kushana Dynasty and Kanishka's Rise:
  • Kanishka's Conquests:
    • Kanishka, under the Kushana dynasty, conquered regions in north-western India, including areas as far as Champa in the middle Ganges Plain.
    • He issued an edict in Greek, followed by a version in Aryan (most likely Prakrit), marking his conquest.
    • The king’s Central Asian roots were confirmed through a headless statue found near Mathura, identified by an inscription.
    • The exact date of Kanishka's accession is debated, ranging between AD 78 and 144. The era beginning in AD 78 is known as the Shaka era, possibly linked to Kanishka’s rise.

    

  • Kushana Kingdom's Extent and Importance:
    • The Kushana kingdom included key cities like Purushapura (near modern Peshawar) and Mathura.
    • Kushana inscriptions have been found across India, even in the middle Ganges Plain, though the presence of artefacts like coins in places such as Chirand doesn’t confirm conquest.
    • The kingdom extended into Central Asia, reaching areas like Kashgar, enhancing its geopolitical significance.
  • Trade and Cultural Influence:
    • The Kushana empire bridged India and China through their Central Asian territory, facilitating trade and cultural exchanges.
    • Inscribed coins and other artefacts along Kushana frontiers point to extensive interactions within the region.
    • Kushana artifacts found at Khalchayan in Central Asia, with inscriptions in Brahmi and Kharoshthi, suggest Prakrit-speaking groups beyond India.
• Connectivity and Early Trade Routes:
  • The Karakorum Highway:
    • Modern construction of the Karakorum Highway links the north-western routes to Central Asia, confirming the existence of earlier trade routes connecting India to regions like Samarkand and Yarkand.
    • These routes, part of the Silk Route, were already in use around the start of the Christian era, evidenced by inscriptions in Kharoshthi, Brahmi, and Bactrian.
  • Influence of Central Asian Trade on India:
    • Central Asian trade routes facilitated cultural exchanges, including the introduction of prized horses, improved horse trappings, and advancements in cavalry technology in India.
    • The trade routes also brought new religious and cultural ideas, influencing Indian practices.
• Religious Patronage and Cultural Influence:
  • Royal Patronage of Various Religions:
    • The Kushanas, under Kanishka, extended royal patronage to various religions, including Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism.
    • The Fourth Buddhist Council, supported by Kanishka, clarified Buddhist doctrine, paralleling Ashoka's Third Council in Pataliputra.
  • Kanishka's Divine Associations:
    • Kanishka’s title "daivaputra" (son of heaven) may have been influenced by Chinese usage and Roman emperor titles like "diva filius" (son of god).
    • After his death, sanctuaries (devakula) were built to deify Kanishka, a rare practice in India, symbolizing his royal status and divine association.
  • Exalted Titles and Royal Propaganda:
    • The Kushanas, like the Indo-Greeks, used exalted titles like "maharajati-raja" (king of kings) and "soter" (saviour), which were part of royal propaganda to create an imperial image.
    • Such titles, along with the use of halos in Kushana portraits, may have been influenced by Mediterranean royal practices.
• Kushana Governance and Decline:
  • Regional Administration:
    • The Kushana empire wasn’t uniformly governed; some regions were directly administered, others under local satraps, and some under suzerainty of existing rulers.
    • The title "mahakshatrapa" (great satrap) was often a precursor to independent kingship.
  • Decline of the Kushanas:
    • The Kushana dynasty weakened due to confrontations with the rising Iranian Sassanid Empire and local challenges from the gana-sanghas in Punjab and Rajasthan.
    • By AD 226, the Sassanid king Ardashir overthrew the Parthians and established Sassanian control, eventually subordinating the Kushanas in the mid-third century.
• Cultural Exchange and Integration:
  • Cross-Cultural Interaction:
    • Central Asian influences led to cultural mutations in India, as Greek and other foreign deities were integrated into the Indian pantheon (e.g., Ardochsho becoming Shri).
    • Coins from the Kushanas occasionally featured Zoroastrian deities, reflecting cultural syncretism.
  • The Influence on Shakas:
    • The arrival of the Kushanas pushed the Shakas further south into regions like Kutch, Kathiawar, and Malwa, where they ruled until the late fourth century AD.

Kujula Kadphises: Founder of the Kushan Empire
Reign	30–80 C.E.
Notable Achievements	Established the foundation for the Kushan Empire, which was subsequently expanded by his descendants.
Vima Taktu: Expander of the Kushan Territory
Reign	80–105 C.E.
Notable Achievements	Significantly expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Vima Kadphises: Innovator of Coinage
Reign	105–127 C.E.
Notable Achievements	Expanded the Kushan territory through conquests in Afghanistan and northwestern India. Introduced gold coinage to India, complementing existing copper and silver currency.
Kanishka I: The Apex of the Kushan Empire
Reign	127–147 C.E.
Notable Achievements	Ruled an extensive territory, including northern India, parts of Ujjain, Kundina, and beyond Pataliputra. Administered the empire from key capitals: Purushapura (modern Peshawar) and Mathura. Initiated the Kushan era (starting in 127 C.E.), which became a calendar reference for nearly a century.
Vāsishka
Reign	Dated to Year 22 and Year 28
Notable Achievements	Short reign following Kanishka, with influence extending as far south as Sanchi.
Huvishka
Reign	140–183 C.E.
Notable Achievements	Focused on consolidating control over Mathura during his reign.
Vasudeva I
Reign	191–225 C.E.
Notable Achievements	Last of the "Great Kushans"; his reign marked the end of the Kushan Empire's dominance with the rise of the Sassanids.

Religion

• Cultural exchanges flourished, encouraging the development of Greco-Buddhism, a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist cultural elements, expanding into central and northern Asia as Mahayana Buddhism.
• Kanishka has earned renown in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir, in 72 A.D.
• Kanishka also had the original Gandhari vernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts translated into the language of Sanskrit.

• The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, constitute the best-known expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners.
• Several direct depictions of Kushans from Gandhara have been discovered, represented with a tunic, belt, and trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya.

Administration

• The vast Kushan Empire, extending from Central Asia to Bihar and from Kashmir to Sind, containing peoples of different nationalities and religions with a heterogeneous socioeconomic background, was governed through an organized administrative system, probably in three tiers, at central, provincial, and local levels.
• The Kushans seem to have followed the earlier existing pattern of the Indo-Greeks and Parthians by appointing ksatrapas and mahaksatrapas for different units of the empire.

Coins

• Kushan kings introduced gold and copper coins, a large number of them have survived till today.
• It was the Kushan emperor, Vima Kadaphises who introduced the first gold coins of India.
• During this period, the main coins issued were of The coin designs usually broadly follow the styles of the preceding Greco-Bactrian rulers in using Hellenistic styles of image, with a deity on one side and the king on the other.

Inscriptions

• The inscriptions issued by the Kushan rulers or in areas under their rule include texts in Bactrian, written in Greek script, and in Prakrit written in Brāhmī or Kharoṣṭhī script.
• The most important of this is the Rabatak Inscription, which established Kanishka’s genealogy, with Kujula Kadphises, Vima Takto (or Takha) and Vima Kadphises being named as his immediate ancestors.

External Contacts

• Several Roman sources describe the visit of ambassadors from the Kings of Bactria and India during the second century, probably referring to the Kushans.
• The Chinese Historical Chronicles also describe the exchange of goods between north-western India and the Roman Empire at that time.

Decline

• After the death of Vasudeva I in 225 A.D., the Kushan empire split into western and eastern halves.
• The Persian Sassanid Empire soon subjugated the Western Kushans (in Afghanistan), losing Bactria and other territories.