Explore the Mesolithic Age in India, focusing on cultural transitions, stone tool innovations, and technological advancements.

Mesolithic Age

• General Description

  • The Late Stone Age or the Mesolithic Age intervened as a transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age, and is also called the Late Stone Age.

  • In India, it started around 8000 B.C. and continued up to about 4000 B.C..

  • The Mesolithic period worldwide marks the transition from hunter-gatherer cultures to early agriculture, occurring between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution.

• Overview - Mesolithic Age

  • Characteristics:

  • 

    • The Mesolithic Age in India started around 8000 B.C. and continued up to about 4000 B.C..
    • The characteristic tools of the Late Stone Age are microliths, which are smaller and more refined than earlier stone tools.
    • Mesolithic sites in India are found in large numbers in Chotanagpur, central India, and also south of the river Krishna.
    • Few finds of the Late Stone Age have been dated scientifically, but these discoveries preceded the Neolithic Age.
    • On the northern spurs of the Vindhyas in the Bélan Valley, all three phases of the Paleolithic followed by the Mesolithic and then by the Neolithic have been found in sequence.
    • It was during this period that small settlements started forming, often located near water bodies, which provided a steady food supply.

• Mesolithic Phases

  • Phases:

  • 

    • The Mesolithic Age is divided into several phases based on archaeological evidence and changes in culture and technology.
    • These phases are characterized by:
      • The evolution of stone tools, transitioning from large hand axes to smaller, sharper microliths.
      • Changes in settlement patterns from nomadic lifestyles to semi-permanent settlements.
      • The introduction of pottery in some regions, signifying the beginning of food storage and cooking advancements.
    • Detailed studies of Mesolithic phases provide insights into the lifestyle, subsistence patterns, and social organization of ancient communities during this period.

• Mesolithic Tools and Technology

  • Mesolithic tools were smaller, lighter, and sharper than those of the Paleolithic Age.
  • The most common tools were microliths, which were often mounted on wood or bone to create composite tools like arrows, spears, and sickles.
  • Some Mesolithic cultures also developed the bow and arrow, greatly improving hunting efficiency.

• Mesolithic Art and Culture

  • Mesolithic rock paintings have been discovered in Bhimbetka Caves (India) and Iberian Mediterranean Basin (Spain), depicting scenes of:
    • Hunting and food-gathering
    • Humans interacting with animals
    • Rituals, dancing, and social activities
  • The Shigir Idol (Russia) is one of the most remarkable Mesolithic sculptures, standing over 5 meters tall.

• Mesolithic Period in India

  • Mesolithic sites in India include:
    • Bagor (Rajasthan) – One of the largest Mesolithic sites in India.
    • Damdama (Uttar Pradesh) – Evidence of early human burials and microliths.
    • Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh) – Important burial site.
    • Bhimbetka Rock Shelters (Madhya Pradesh) – Home to prehistoric rock paintings.
  • The transition from hunting-gathering to early farming started in some regions during the late Mesolithic.

• Conclusion

  • The Mesolithic Age was a crucial transitional phase in human history. It saw the refinement of tools, the emergence of semi-permanent settlements, and early artistic and cultural expressions. This period set the foundation for the full-scale agricultural revolution of the Neolithic Age.

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters: Exploration, Art, and Significance in Archaeology

• Coordinates

  • 22°56′18″N 77°36′47″E

  • 

• General Description

  • The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India, Madhya Pradesh, spanning the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of the Stone Age starting in the Acheulian period. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the site consists of seven hills and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 km. Some shelters were inhabited over 100,000 years ago.

• Location of Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

  • Description

    The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are 45 kilometres south-east of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, at the southern edge of the Vindhya Range. The site consists of seven hills:

    • Vinayaka
    • Bhonrawali
    • Bhimbetka
    • Lakha Juar west
    • Lakha Juar east
    • Jhondra
    • Muni Babaki Pahari

• Background of Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

  • Bhimbetka: Meaning "Bhima's resting place" or "Bhima's lounge", derived from Bhima (from the Mahabharata) and Baithaka (seat or lounge).
  • First mentioned by W. Kincaid in 1888, as a Hinduism site.
  • First archaeological exploration by V. S. Wakankar in 1957.
  • Over 750 rock shelters discovered, with evidence of continuous human settlement from the Stone Age.

• Auditorium Cave at Bhimbetka: Architecture and Historical Significance

  • Description

    

    • Auditorium Cave: A cathedral-like structure with Gothic arches, surrounded by quartzite towers.
    • Largest shelter at Bhimbetka.
    • Plan resembles a "right-angled cross".
    • Main entrance points to the east with a distinctive boulder called "Chief's Rock".

• Zoo Rock Shelter: Discovering the Ancient Animal Art

  • Description

    

    • Zoo Rock Shelter: Known for its combination of cupules and paintings featuring animals like bisons, tigers, lions, elephants, and others.

• Rock Art at Bhimbetka: Insights into Prehistoric Life

  • Paintings in Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

    • Paintings vary from geometric forms to depictions of daily life, animals, and rituals.
    • Colors used were derived from natural materials like manganese, hematite, and charcoal.

• Animal Depictions in Bhimbetka: A Glimpse into Ancient Rituals

  • Illustrations in the Bhimbetka Caves

    • Oldest paintings depict animals and geometric forms, using green and dark red colors.
    • Successive periods show human figures engaged in hunting, dancing, and daily activities.
    • Later paintings exhibit more complex scenes, including battles and rituals.

Detailed Study on Mesolithic Period

The Mesolithic Culture or Middle Stone Age

The Mesolithic culture, also known as the Middle Stone Age, began around 8,000 B.C. and served as a middle phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic Ages. The word "Mesolithic" is derived from the Greek words Mesos (meaning "middle") and Lithos (meaning "stone"). This phase saw significant developments in tool-making and subsistence patterns, reflecting a shift in human culture.

• Mesolithic Sites in India

  Most Mesolithic sites in India have been discovered through surface collections of tools. The evidence of Mesolithic cultures is found at various locations, with cultures displaying diverse subsistence patterns. Hunting cultures often co-existed with pastoral and agricultural communities.

• Changes in Hunting Techniques and Tools

  During the Mesolithic era, the pattern of hunting shifted from large game to small game hunting. Man continued as a nomadic hunter-gatherer but made significant changes in his toolkit, notably the creation of composite tools and microliths. These tools enabled more efficient hunting of smaller and faster animals, such as those in the deer-family and flying birds.

• First Proof of Mesolithic Man in India

  The first evidence of Mesolithic humans in India was noted in 1867-68 A.D. by A.C.L. Carlyle (English Archaeologist), who discovered a large number of microliths in caves and rock shelters in the Kaimur Range in Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh. Later, in 1950 A.D., the first Mesolithic site was excavated by H.D. Sankalia (Hashmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia) at Langham and other locations in Gujarat.

• Social Life and Economic Activities

  Social life and economic activities of the Mesolithic people can be understood through rock paintings and art found at sites such as Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur. These paintings depict various activities, including:

  • Hunting game
  • Gathering plant resources
  • Trapping animals
  • Eating together
  • Dancing and playing instruments

  Animal depictions are the most frequent, including mammoths, deer, and other creatures. Additionally, scenes depicting human figures and unusual events such as chariots being attacked by men armed with spears and bows were also captured, as seen at the Morhana Pahar group of rock shelters near Mirzapur.

• Development of New Technology in Mesolithic Period

  During the Mesolithic period, the technology of tool production underwent significant advancements. The key development was the increased use of microliths, small stone tools ranging from 1 to 8 centimeters in length. The primary types of microliths included blades, cores, points, triangles, and trapezes. Palaeolithic tools like scrapers, burins, and choppers were still in use during this period.

  Microliths were used as components for spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons, and daggers, providing early humans with more specialized tools for hunting and other tasks.

• Microliths: Small Stone Tools

  Microliths are small stone tools, usually made from flint or chert. They were crafted by early humans from around 35,000 to 3,000 years ago across regions including Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia. These tools were primarily used as spear points and arrowheads in hunting and other tasks.

• Hunter-Gatherers

  The term hunter-gatherers describes societies whose primary sources of food were wild animals and plants. For the last 3 million years of human evolution, hunter-gathering was the main method of subsistence for human societies.

Mesolithic Sites

The important Mesolithic sites in India are as follows:

• Pachpadra Basin and Sojat Area (Rajasthan)

  The Pachpadra basin and the Sojat area are rich in microliths. At Tilwara, a key site, there are two distinct cultural phases:

  • Phase 1: Characterized by the presence of microliths.
  • Phase 2: Wheel-made pottery and iron pieces, along with microliths, are found.

• Bagor (on the River Kothari)

  Bagor, excavated horizontally, is the largest Mesolithic site in India, located along the River Kothari.

• Rivers in Gujarat

  The rivers Tapti, Narmada, Mahi, and Sabarmati in Gujarat have yielded numerous Mesolithic sites.

  Langhnaj, situated east of the River Sabarmati, produced microliths (mostly blades, triangles, crescents, scrapers, and burins), along with burials and animal bones. Other important Mesolithic sites in the region include Akhaj, Valasana, and Hirpur.

• Vindhyas and Satpuras

  The Vindhyas and Satpuras are rich in Mesolithic sites. Two key sites in the Kaimur Range of Uttar Pradesh are Morhana Pahar and Lekhahia.

  Bhimbetka (in Madhya Pradesh), with its favorable ecological setup, has yielded many microliths. Another significant Mesolithic site is Adamgarh in Hosangabad.

• Other Important Mesolithic Sites

  Various regions have also yielded Mesolithic microliths, including:

  • The Chhota Nagpur Plateau
  • The coastal plains of Odisha
  • The Bengal delta
  • The Brahmaputra Valley
  • The Shillong Plateau

• Krishna and Bhima Rivers

  The Krishna and Bhima rivers have produced a significant number of microliths, both Mesolithic and Neolithic. Sangankallu, located on the western fringe of the Karnataka Plateau, has produced cores, flakes, points, and crescents.

  Microliths have also been found in Kurnool and Renigunta in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh. Other Mesolithic sites include Bagor, Sarai-Nahar-Rai, Mahadaha, and Adamgarh, known for their early dates and associated material culture.

• Artifact

  An artifact is any object that has been made, modified, or used by humans. It can range from a coarse stone used in the manufacture of flint to highly technical items made of various materials.

  Hand-Axe

  A hand-axe is a prehistoric stone tool with two faces, which was the longest-used tool in human history. It is typically made from flint or chert.

Changes in Lifestyle and Economy: From Nomadism to Sedentary Settlements

• Lifestyle Changes in Mesolithic Era

  The Mesolithic period saw remarkable shifts in the lifestyles of early humans. Favorable climate conditions, better rainfall, and increased food security contributed to a gradual shift from nomadic existence to more seasonally sedentary settlements. This change laid the groundwork for the development of more stable communities.

• Disposal of Dead and Making of Graves

  During the Mesolithic period, humans began to bury their dead, a practice that evolved over time. Burials have been found at sites like Bagor and Langhnaj in Rajasthan, Lang in Gujarat, and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. The burials were typically either in an extended or crouched position. In some cases, two individuals were buried in a single grave, which might indicate the development of family units.

  Grave offerings were sometimes included, such as chunks of meat, grinding stones, stone tools, bone and antler ornaments, and pieces of hematite. The following burial types have been identified:

  • Extended burial
  • Flexed (folded) burial
  • Fractional (secondary) burial
  • Double burial (two individuals buried together, suggesting family bonds)

• The Emergence of Arts

  Mesolithic humans were also deeply engaged in artistic expression, as evidenced by rock paintings found in shelters around the world. These paintings were often created using red and white pigments derived from natural minerals like iron oxide and limestone. The themes of these paintings include:

  • Wild animals and hunting scenes
  • Social and religious life, such as sexual activity, childbirth, rearing of children, burial ceremonies, and dance
  • Human figures, animals with human heads, and geometric shapes
  • Hunting and trapping activities with a clear depiction of labor division based on sex

  Clothing and ornaments, such as loincloths, headgear, feather decorations, and bone or shell beads, were also depicted in the paintings. Musical instruments like blowpipes and horns appear in some artistic works, indicating the cultural and ritualistic significance of music and dance during this time.

• Hunting Methods

  The Mesolithic period saw the innovation of composite tools for hunting, fishing, and food gathering. The bow and arrow, barbed spears, and sticks became common hunting tools, along with ring stones used as stone clubs. Additionally, masks in the form of animal heads (such as rhinoceros, bull, and deer) were used as disguises to deceive game animals.

• Food Production and Agricultural Developments

  The Mesolithic period marked a shift from a purely hunting-gathering lifestyle to early food production, starting around 6000 B.C.. This transition involved the cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals, although agriculture was not fully developed at this time. Some key developments included:

  • First domesticated animals: Dog, cattle, sheep, and goats
  • First cultivated plants: Wheat and barley
  • Rice cultivation and pig domestication in humid regions of the middle Ganga Valley, China, and Southeast Asia

  In these regions, rice and pigs existed in wild forms and were likely domesticated around the same time. Domesticated animals provided not only food but also milk, hides, and support for agricultural tasks. This new subsistence economy, centered around food production, played a crucial role in the evolution of human society.

  The spread of Neolithic traits like farming, herding, polished stone axes, timber longhouses, and pottery gradually marginalized the Mesolithic way of life, leading to its eventual disappearance. The transition to agriculture also led to shifts in population size and dietary habits, marking a significant chapter in human history.

Mesolithic Rock Art

• Milestone in Rock Art

  Mesolithic Rock-art marked a significant milestone in the development of early human expression. In 1867-68 A.D., A.C.L. Carlyle of the Archaeological Survey of India discovered traces of Mesolithic Rock-art in the rock shelters of Sohagighat, located in the Kaimur mountain range (District Mirzapur). Since then, around 150 such rock shelters have been discovered and classified into 19 types.

  Most of these rock shelters (around 3/4) are situated in the Vindhya-Satpura ranges in Madhya Pradesh. The rock art at Bhimbetka (located 45 km from Bhopal) is particularly noteworthy and widely appreciated. In 1957 A.D., V.S. Vakankar discovered rock paintings in this area. Today, 642 rock shelters are found within a 10 km radius, surrounded by seven mountains.

• Bhimbetka and Its Significance

  Due to favorable environmental factors such as ample rainfall, a perennial water supply, abundant raw materials, and a dense forest filled with diverse animals, Bhimbetka became a favored location for prehistoric humans. Mathapal classified the paintings in three stages, identifying around 12 distinct styles. Some paintings are single-colored, while others feature multiple colors, and occasionally, geometrical designs are incorporated into the depictions of animals.

• Depiction of Animals in Paintings

  The Mesolithic rock art features a variety of animals, with 29 types identified, including tigers, leopards, elephants, rhinos, deer, wild boar, monkeys, rabbits, foxes, and squirrels, all depicted in different movements. Interestingly, snakes are absent from these paintings. The animals are often filled with various geometrical patterns, enhancing the visual storytelling.

• Hunting Scenes and Human Figures

  The paintings also depict hunting scenes, showing both mob hunts and individual hunting events using traps. The hunters are depicted with horn-headed figures, wearing ornaments like necklaces, bangles, and armlets. Their toolkits, found at various Mesolithic sites, include composite tools with microliths, bow-and-arrow, sticks, and catapults. Occasionally, dogs accompany the hunters in these scenes.

• Animal Activities and Modes of Subsistence

  In addition to hunting, the paintings illustrate various animal activities, such as a pregnant animal, a father and mother playing with their young, deer chasing birds, rabbits jumping, and monkeys. Other scenes depict animals grazing and hunting, indicating the subsistence activities of the Mesolithic people. The paintings also feature activities like honey gathering and fishing, revealing the diverse ways in which Mesolithic humans obtained food.

• Regional Discoveries and Special Mentions

  Odisha has yielded around 55 rock shelters from the districts of Sundargarh and Sambalpur, although the paintings there are primarily geometric and feature fewer depictions of humans and animals. In Kerala, at the Yezuthu rock shelter, only animal paintings are present, with no human figures depicted.

  A special mention must be made of the Jaora Caves in Madhya Pradesh, where rock paintings provide insights into the Mesolithic people’s understanding of the creation and nature of the universe. These paintings seem to have been created for some religious purpose, as the caves where they are found were not used for residential purposes. Repeated outlines in the paintings suggest an ancient belief in bringing forth the desired animal through continuous drawing.

List of Indian Mesolithic Sites, their Locations and Characteristics

Site Name	Location	Characteristics
Bagor	Rajasthan	Provides the earliest evidence of burial. It had a microlithic industry and its people lived on hunting and pastoralism.
Adamgarh	Madhya Pradesh	It shows the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals.
Bhimbetka	Madhya Pradesh	It has more than 500 painted rock shelters.
Langhnaj	Gujarat	Provides the earliest evidence of burial of the dead.