Delve into the Neolithic Age, a transformative period in human history, featuring the shift to agriculture, the rise of settlements, and the development of tools.

Neolithic Age: Agricultural Revolution and Settlements

The Neolithic Age, often referred to as the New Stone Age, was a transformative period in human history marked by the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settled life. This epoch laid the groundwork for the rise of complex societies and the dawn of civilization.

Neolithic Culture Overview

Neolithic culture, also known as the New Stone Age, marks one of the most significant periods in the history of mankind. This era saw transformative changes, spreading across nearly all parts of the world, giving it considerable importance.

In 1842, Captain Meadows Tylor discovered the first Neolithic tool, a polished stone axe, in Lingasagur of Raichur District, Karnataka. Later, in 1872, Fraser found the first Neolithic settlement in Bellary District, Karnataka. Further discoveries by Robert Bruce Foot led to the identification of over 200 Neolithic sites across South India.

• Definition and Meaning of Neolithic Culture

  The term Neolithic originates from two Greek words: Neo, meaning "New", and Lithos, meaning "Stone". Hence, it is referred to as the New Stone Age.

  The Encyclopedia Britannica defines the Neolithic as a period characterized by:

  • Polished stone tools
  • Pottery
  • Horticulture and domestication of animals

• Transition to Agricultural Society

  During the Neolithic Age, humans shifted from a hunting-gathering economy to a food-producing society. Specialized tools were crafted to support agricultural activities, which significantly influenced social behaviors. This period spanned from 10,000 B.C. to 5,000 B.C. and concluded with the rise of the Metal Age.

• Key Theorists and Contributions

  • Sir John Lubbock's Contribution

    The term Neolithic was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in his book “Pre-historic Times”, published in 1875.

  • V. Gordon Childe's Perspective

    V. Gordon Childe described the Neolithic culture as a self-sufficient food economy, emphasizing its agricultural advancements.

  • Miles Burkitt's Characteristics of Neolithic Culture

    Miles Burkitt defined four criteria for recognizing Neolithic culture:

    • Agriculture practice
    • Domestication of animals
    • Grinding and polishing of stone tools
    • Pottery manufacturing

• Regional Neolithic Settlements and Divisions

  • Global Context

    The Neolithic Age commenced around 10,000 B.C. globally. In the Indian subcontinent, the oldest known Neolithic settlement, dating back to 7,000 B.C., was found in Mehrgarh, situated in Baluchistan (modern-day Pakistan).

  • V.D. Krishnaswami's Classification

    In 1962 A.D., V.D. Krishnaswami categorized the Indian Neolithic complex into four major provinces:

    • Central and Western India
    • Southern India
    • Eastern India, subdivided into:
      • Assam
      • Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa
    • Kashmir

  • B.K. Thapar's Geographical Zones

    In 1978, B.K. Thapar divided the Neolithic settlements into six geographical zones:

    • Northern Zone - Kashmir Valley
    • Belan Valley - Vindhyan Plateau (covering Allahabad, Mirzapur, Rewa, and Sidhi)
    • Northern Bihar
    • North-Eastern Zone - Assam and adjacent sub-Himalayan regions
    • Central-Eastern Zone - Chotanagpur Plateau, extending into West Bengal and Orissa
    • Southern Zone - Peninsular India

Neolithic Sites Overview

The important Neolithic sites are as follows:

• Mehrgarh

  Mehrgarh, situated on the Karachi plains at the frontier between Baluchistan and Sindh (now in Pakistan), showcases evidence of occupation spanning five to six thousand years, divided into two major periods:

  • 8000-6000 B.C. - A ceramic culture lacking pottery
  • 5000-3000 B.C. - Pottery emergence and advancements in agriculture

  A significant architectural feature from this phase was the introduction of small, regular compartments. Recognized as the earliest agricultural settlement in South Asia, excavations at Mehrgarh began in 1974 A.D. under the guidance of Jean-François Jarrige and continued in 1986 A.D. with Catherine Jarrige.

• Baluchistan Neolithic Sites

  • Kili Ghul Muhammad - Excavated from 1949-1951 A.D. by W.A. Fairservis, it revealed four phases of occupation. Radiocarbon samples dated to 4400 B.C. and 4100 B.C., with evidence of domesticated sheep, goats, and oxen. Mud-brick and clay houses were found alongside chert, jasper blades, grinding stones, and bone awls.
  • Rana Ghundai - Briefly excavated by Brigadier E.J. Ross in 1946 A.D., it revealed nomadic living surfaces, hearths, and plain handmade pottery with evidence of sheep, goat, cattle, and semi-ass bones.
  • Anjira - Featured chert blade tools, bone awls, spatula, and a small bead. Wheel-thrown pottery painted with motifs was discovered, followed by house walls constructed using river boulders.
  • Mundigak - Located in southeast Afghanistan, J.M. Casal found settlements with semi-nomadic inhabitants. Later levels showed oblong houses made of sun-dried bricks.

• Kashmir Neolithic Culture

  The Neolithic Culture of Kashmir Valley, particularly at Burzahom and Gufkral, is marked by pit-dwellings with well-made red-ochre floors. The people exhibited distinctive ceramics and stone tools.

  • Burzahom - Discovered by Helmut De Terra and Dr. Thomas Patterson in 1935 A.D. and later excavated between 1960-1971 A.D. under T.N. Khazanchi.
  • Gufkral - Situated 41 km southwest of Srinagar, its people practiced both agriculture and animal domestication. Coarse grey pottery emerged in later phases.

• Belan Valley Neolithic Sites

  Located on the Vindhyan Plateau, Belan Valley sites illustrate the transition from food-gathering to food production. Prominent excavations include:

  • Chopani-Mando
  • Koldihawa
  • Mahagara

  People lived a sedentary life in circular huts made of timber posts and thatch.

• Neolithic Cultures of Assam Hills

  In the hills of Assam including North Cachar, Garo Hills, and Naga Hills, the Neolithic culture is characterized by:

  • Shouldered Celts
  • Small ground axes with a rounded form
  • Cord-impressed pottery

  This phase is approximately dated to 2000 B.C..

• Neolithic Culture in South India

  Archaeologists classify South Indian Neolithic Culture into three phases, seen at sites such as:

  • Sangankallu and Nagarjunakonda - Rudimentary cultivation knowledge.
  • Second Phase - Introduction of lapidary art and animal domestication.
  • Third Phase - Dominance of grey ware pottery.

  Notable excavations include Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalokota (Karnataka), Piklihal, Piyampali (Tamil Nadu), Hallur, and Uthur (Andhra Pradesh).

• Upper, Central, and Western Deccan

  Sites from these regions produced parallel-sided blades, microliths of agate, chalcedony, carnelian, grey ware pottery, and chalcolithic painted pottery. However, no distinct Neolithic phase has been established here.

• Gumla and Jalilpur Neolithic Sites

  • Gumla - Located northwest of Dera Ismail Khan, near the Indus River. Excavations revealed hearths, community ovens, animal bones, coarse pottery, and microliths.
  • Jalilpur - Situated in Multan, Punjab, near the Ravi River. This site is notable for stone-blade industries, bone points, mud bricks, and terracotta net sinkers.

• Odisha Neolithic Sites

  Archaeological excavations in Odisha uncovered Neolithic Celts and red ware pottery. Key sites include:

  • Kuchai
  • Baidipur - Evidence of rice cultivation
  • Shankarjang
  • Suabarei - Excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India

• Centers of Neolithic Culture

  The Neolithic Age developed gradually across the world, with major centers in:

  • Nile Valley
  • Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Mesopotamia)
  • Indus River
  • Hwang Ho River
  • Crete Islands
  • Andes Mountains
  • Yucatan Peninsula

Transition from Palaeolithic to Neolithic Period

The earliest inhabitants of the world were primarily food-gatherers. It took them a considerable amount of time to transition from gathering food to producing it. However, once they acquired the knowledge of food production, their progress accelerated rapidly. The Neolithic man benefited greatly from the experiences of earlier cultures.

• Improvement in Stone Tools

  During the Neolithic period, significant advancements were made in the development of stone tools. The Neolithic man polished stones to create sharp edges, making them more effective for various purposes. They fashioned stone axes and attached them to wooden handles, making durable tools for cutting wood and hunting animals.

  Additionally, they crafted sharp arrowheads, which further enhanced their hunting capabilities.

• Domestication of Animals

  In the earlier periods, animals were primarily hunted for food. However, during the Neolithic Age, humans recognized the value of animals beyond hunting. They began the process of domestication, utilizing animals for various beneficial purposes such as farming, transportation, and companionship.

• Introduction of Agriculture

  Although hunting remained a primary occupation, the Neolithic people gradually learned the art of agriculture. By observing how plants grew from seeds, they developed the concept of sowing and cultivating crops. This marked the beginning of organized farming, which significantly contributed to the growth of human settlements.

• Pottery and Ceramics

  One of the remarkable achievements of the Neolithic Age was the creation of earthen pots. These pots were used for storing food, water, and other essentials. The development of pottery signified an essential step in their progress towards a more organized and settled lifestyle.

• Weaving and Clothing

  In the initial stages, Neolithic people wore animal skins as clothing. However, with time, they acquired the knowledge of weaving. They used fibers from tree barks and other plant materials to produce cloth, making this another significant milestone in their advancement.

• Permanent Settlements

  The New Stone Age also saw the development of permanent settlements. Instead of leading a nomadic life, people constructed huts for shelter, establishing the foundations of early villages. This transition encouraged the formation of organized communities and social structures.

• Introduction of Metals

  Towards the end of the Neolithic period, humans discovered the use of metals. Although stone tools continued to be widely used, the introduction of gold, copper, tin, bronze, and iron marked the beginning of a new era. These materials proved to be more efficient for making tools and weapons, leading to further advancements in human civilization.

Neolithic Tools and Lifestyle

Neolithic tools were of a superior variety compared to those of the preceding periods. The stone tools of the Neolithic people consisted of ground stone tools like axes, adzes, wedges, chisels, microliths, and stone blades. At Palavoy, a rich bone tool assemblage comprising axes, blades, and points has been found. In the later stages of the culture, copper and bronze tools also came into use. Unlike Palaeolithic and Mesolithic tools, Neolithic tools showed signs of polish, either all over the body or at the ends. Many tools were grooved and polished to become highly finished objects adapted to various purposes.

• Materials Used in Neolithic Tools

  The material for tools in this age was primarily fine-grained dark green traps, though diorite, basalt, slate, chlorite, schist, gneiss, sandstone, and quartzite were occasionally used.

• Neolithic Pottery

  Initially, pottery was handmade, of poor quality, and drab grey in color. It consisted of jars, spouted vessels, and bowls of various sizes, sometimes decorated with incised designs. In later stages, wheel-made, sturdy pottery occasionally decorated with painted motifs came into use.

• Black and Red Ware

  An important new type of ceramic called Black and Red Ware emerged during the Neolithic Age. According to Bruce Foote, Indian Neolithic implements can be classified into 78 distinct types. Out of these, 41 types belong to the polished class, while 37 types are unpolished. Items such as chisels, hammers, mortars, beads, buttons, discs, and toys belonged to the polished class, while arrows, knives, lancets, wedges, and mallets were classified as unpolished.

• Food Production in the Neolithic Age

  The concluding phase of the Stone Age marked the beginning of food production. With the shift from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic Age, people significantly improved their diet. They became familiar with fire and began cooking food instead of consuming raw meat. Roasting the flesh of animals became a common practice. Their diet also included fruits, milk, curd, ghee, butter, and the juice of various forest vegetables. Additionally, the consumption of the flesh of different animals and birds remained prevalent.

• Clothing and Textiles

  With the development of agriculture, the Neolithic people began growing cotton. They also advanced in the arts of weaving and spinning, constructing spinning wheels to produce cloth from cotton. In terms of clothing, men wore a loincloth similar to the modern dhoti, while women likely wore petticoats that reached their knees.

  Neolithic people also combed their hair into various styles and adorned themselves with beads, rings, bangles, and armlets. Over time, clothes woven from linen, cotton, and wool gradually replaced animal skins and skirts made from leaves. Additionally, they tanned leather and used animal hides, along with flax, wool, and goat hair for clothing, which they spun into thread.

Beginning of Agriculture in the Neolithic Period

How the early men came to know the art of agriculture still remains a mystery. Why did people give up hunting and gathering for farming? Many probable reasons played a significant role in the development of agriculture during the Neolithic period. The reasons are as follows:

• Reasons for Agriculture Development

  • Changes in climate may have made it too cold or too dry to rely on wild food sources.
  • Larger population density may have demanded more food than could be harvested from the wild.
  • Changing technology, such as domesticated seeds, would have made agriculture a more feasible lifestyle.

  Probably, the Neolithic people came across wheat, rice, and barley growing wild and found them delicious to eat. They sowed these grains as seeds, which grew into plants. This marked the beginning of food production during the Neolithic Age. While they did not completely abandon hunting, they became less dependent on it. Initially, they followed a shifting system of cultivation.

  The deep variations in human interactions and subsistence methods during the onset of early agricultural practices within the Neolithic period are referred to as the Neolithic Revolution, a term coined by the Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe in the 1920s.

• Impact of Agriculture on Neolithic Life

  • With the start of the Neolithic Age, people became less dependent on hunting and food gathering. They began producing their own food by cultivating cereals and developing agriculture.
  • The transformation from nomadic hunter-gatherers to sedentary farmers led to the beginning of village settlements.
  • New types of tools were manufactured, giving humans greater control over nature by utilizing natural resources.
  • The development of agriculture and the invention of more sophisticated tools enabled people to build permanent shelters.

• Neolithic Tools and Technology

  The most common tools used by Neolithic people were:

  • Daggers and spear points for hunting.
  • Hand axes for cutting meat.
  • Scrapers for cleaning animal hides.

  Advances in tool-making and domestic technology contributed to progress in agriculture. This agricultural development was a turning point, leading to technological revolutions and the invention of various tools and devices.

• Distinctive Characteristics of Neolithic Technology

  Neolithic technology was characterized by the use of polished or ground stone tools, unlike the flaked stone tools of the Palaeolithic era. Neolithic people were skilled in making a variety of tools essential for farming, harvesting, and food processing. These included:

  • Sickle blades
  • Grinding stones
  • Pottery
  • Bone implements

  Additionally, Neolithic artisans created other stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes.

• Evidence of Agriculture in Neolithic Sites

  Excavations at several sites provide evidence of agricultural activities during the Neolithic period. Significant discoveries include:

  • Burzahom and Gufkral - Proof of the cultivation of lentils, masur, peas, wheat, and barley.
  • Chopani-Mando in the Belan Valley - Evidence of wild rice.
  • Koldihawa - Domestication of modern rice varieties.
  • Senuwar (Rohtas, Bihar) - Cultivation of rice, barley, field peas, lentils, and millets.
  • South India - Early cultivation of millet (ragi), believed to have originated from East Africa. Other crops included wheat, horse gram, and moong (green gram). Additionally, date palms were grown.

• Challenges Arising from Agriculture

  While agriculture provided security in terms of food production, it also introduced new challenges for Neolithic communities. Some of these challenges were:

  • Famines and pests that caused diseases previously unknown to humans.
  • Sanitation issues due to the lack of proper waste disposal in primitive villages.

  Despite these challenges, agricultural innovations were a major catalyst for technological advancements, laying the foundation for the future progress of human civilizations.

Domestication and Settled Life in the Neolithic Period

To assist in agricultural work, Neolithic people began to domesticate animals. The selection of animals for domestication was influenced by specific concerns, including:

• Factors for Domestication

  • Animals whose food could be easily provided through human effort and guidance.
  • Animals that were not too aggressive or harmful to humans.
  • Animals that could be easily transported or moved from one place to another under captivity.

  Dogs and asses were probably the first animals to be tamed. Following this, pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle (including cows, oxen, and buffaloes) were also domesticated. Each animal served a different purpose:

  • Dogs assisted in hunting and protected homes, fields, and livestock.
  • Asses and oxen were used as beasts of burden for transporting goods.
  • Cattle were domesticated for milk production.
  • Goats provided both meat and milk.
  • Sheep were valued for their meat and wool, which was used for clothing.

  Some Neolithic people chose a pastoral lifestyle, maintaining herds of animals without cultivating the land. These pastoralists, or shepherds, remained nomadic, traveling across plains and hills in search of pasture for their livestock.

• Beginning of Settled Life

  Agriculture encouraged a more settled lifestyle. Neolithic people began living near their fields, constructing small houses using branches of trees, which they plastered with mud for reinforcement. In order to protect themselves from wild animals, they built protective fences made of sharpened wooden poles around their huts.

  • Wandering groups from the Palaeolithic Period gradually settled in different places. These small settlements eventually developed into villages and even fortified towns.
  • Families and groups learned to live together, contributing to the growth of communal life.
  • A common language emerged, understood by the inhabitants of the village, facilitating better communication.
  • The family head held great respect, often leading the community with authority.

  Political organization also began to take shape. A division of labor emerged, with roles such as farmers, miners, and traders. However, mining and trading were still in their rudimentary stages.

• Development of Community Life

  With the establishment of permanent settlements, community life evolved. People constructed homes and small huts using tree branches. In some regions, villages were built on lakes using large wooden platforms supported by thousands of piles, providing protection from both enemies and wild animals.

  • Neolithic people also developed boats by hollowing out and burning the inner parts of long logs. These boats allowed easy transportation across water bodies.
  • Family and group life grew stronger, with societies likely governed by a council of elders.
  • Customary laws regulated activities and relationships within the community, laying the foundation for organized social structures.

• Better Stone Implements

  Neolithic tools and implements were significantly improved compared to the earlier Palaeolithic Age. The need for efficient tools grew as people began to till the soil, sow seeds, and harvest crops. Some notable advancements in stone tools included:

  • Digging Sticks - Used for tilling soil and planting seeds.
  • Axes - Larger in size, now equipped with wooden handles for better grip and usage.
  • Stone Knives - Used for cutting plants, fruits, and meat.
  • Stone Sickles - Developed to efficiently cut wheat and other crops.
  • Hammers - Improved with wooden handles, used for various agricultural and domestic tasks.
  • Stone Utensils - Created to store food and water safely.

  These tools were well-shaped and polished, reflecting the technological advancements of the Neolithic Age. The introduction of such efficient tools allowed people to cultivate land, harvest crops, and sustain larger communities.

Development of Art of Pottery, Weaving, and Culture in the Neolithic Period

During the Neolithic Age, the art of pottery and the creation of earthen goods developed rapidly. Beautiful colors were applied to pottery, giving them a graceful form. As people began growing their own food, they required vessels to store grains. Initially, they made stone vessels, followed by woven baskets made of thin tree branches.

With the discovery of cooking, the need for utensils arose. Stone utensils proved unsuitable for cooking, leading to the development of earthen pots. The earliest pots were created by plastering clay around baskets, which were then hardened by baking them over a fire. Eventually, people learned to shape pots without using baskets, further refining their pottery-making skills.

• Invention of the Wheel

  One of the most important inventions of the Neolithic period was the wheel. It became a crucial tool for transportation, with carts serving as a primary means of travel. The wheel's invention brought significant advancements in daily life and facilitated better communication between groups.

  Beyond transportation, the wheel was adapted for various purposes, including:

  • Shaping earthen pots using the potter's wheel.
  • Rolling wagons for transporting goods and people.
  • Turning spindles for weaving and spinning.
  • Operating pulleys for lifting and construction tasks.

  The invention of the wheel accelerated human progress, making activities more efficient and communication between communities quicker and more feasible.

• Dwelling Houses and Development of Art

  Neolithic people learned the art of building houses using mud and stone. To protect themselves from wild animals, they often constructed huts on lakes using timber platforms supported by pillars embedded in the lakebed.

  • The internal walls of these homes were adorned with paintings of both wild and domesticated animals.
  • Scenes of hunting and dancing were common subjects depicted in their artwork.
  • Aside from wall paintings, Neolithic artists crafted statues from stone and ivory.
  • They also polished and decorated stone tools and implements with intricate designs.
  • Neolithic potters were especially skilled, creating not only functional earthen pots but also carving artistic patterns on their surfaces. These pots were polished in various vibrant colors, many of which have retained their brilliance to this day.

• Disposal of the Dead

  Unlike earlier times, Neolithic people did not leave dead bodies in open fields. Instead, they practiced specific burial rituals. Two common methods of burial were:

  • Primary Burial - The deceased were buried directly in the ground. Evidence of such burials has been found in the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh.
  • Urn Burial - In this practice, the whole body, reduced in size by pounding or dissection, was placed inside an urn. This method did not involve the cremation of bodies.

• Religious Beliefs of the Neolithic People

  Religious beliefs during the Neolithic Age closely resembled those of the Palaeolithic people. Neolithic people believed in supernatural powers and worshiped natural elements such as:

  • Mother Earth
  • Rain
  • Sun

  To gain the favor of these nature gods, Neolithic people conducted religious ceremonies and made offerings as sacrifices. Additionally, they practiced ancestor worship and held ceremonial rituals upon the death of their loved ones.

Characteristics: Defining the Neolithic Era

• The period started around 10,000 BC and marked the beginning of agriculture and animal domestication.
• Early evidence of Neolithic culture is found in:
  • Egypt and Mesopotamia
  • Indus region
  • Ganges valley of India
  • China

Neolithic Revolution: A Shift in Human Lifestyle

• The development of agriculture led to surplus food production, resulting in the rise of civilizations.
• Large villages emerged along with the development of pottery and permanent residences.
• Characteristic tools included:
  • Polished stone
  • Stone axes
  • Microlith blades

Neolithic Sites and Their Characteristics: Regional Variations

North-Western India: Early Domestication

The Neolithic culture of north-western India is the earliest to have evidence of plant and animal domestication in India.

• Major sites:
  • Mehrgarh
  • Rana Ghundai
  • Sarai Kala
  • Jalilpur
• These sites are now in Pakistan.
• Mehrgarh (7000 BC) had:
  • Wheat and barley cultivation
  • Domesticated sheep, goat, and cattle
  • Early phase (7000-5500 BC) lacked pottery but had:
    • Six-row barley, emmer and einkorn wheat
    • Jujube, ilanthai, and dates
    • Semi-nomadic pastoral groups with mud houses
  • Later phases (5500-3500 BC):
    • Long-distance trade (e.g., lapis lazuli from Badakhshan)
    • Pottery evidence
    • Terracotta figurines and glazed faience beads

Early Dentistry in Neolithic Mehrgarh: Innovations in Health

Due to the shift to ground grain and cooked food, dental issues arose. Evidence of human tooth drilling has been found at Mehrgarh, considered a prelude to dentistry.

Valley of Kashmir: Pit Dwellings and Megaliths

Burzahom provides evidence for Megalithic and Early Historic periods.

• People lived in pit dwellings to escape the cold.
• Oval-shaped houses, wide at the bottom and narrow at the top.
• Used bone and stone tools.
• Evidence of:
  • Menhirs (standing stones)
  • Redware pottery
  • Metal objects (copper arrowheads)
• Agriculture and domesticated animals:
  • Wheat, barley, common pea, and lentil
  • Contact with Central Asia indicated by lentil use
• Contemporary to Harappan civilization and traded with them.
• Two cultural phases:
  • Aceramic (without pottery)
  • Ceramic (evidence of pottery)
• Used black ware pottery, agate beads, carnelian beads, and painted pottery.
• A burial site contained a wild dog bone and antler horn.
• Engraving of a hunting scene with a dog and the sun found on a stone.

Ganges Valley and Central India: Agricultural Diversity

• Major sites:
  • Lehuradeva, Chopani Munda, Koldiwa, Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh)
  • Chirand, Senuwar (Bihar)
• Lehuradeva (Uttar Pradesh) had early rice cultivation (6500 BC).
• These sites show evidence of:
  • Pottery
  • Plant and animal domestication
• Evidence for the cultivation of:
  • Hulled and six-rowed barley
  • Several wheat varieties
  • Rice, peas, green gram, chickpeas, mustard, flax, jackfruit
• Animal remains: Sheep, goat, cattle, and wild animals.

East India: Tool Innovations

• Neolithic sites: Bihar and West Bengal.
• Important sites:
  • Birbhanpur
  • Chirand
  • Kuchai
  • Golbaisasan
  • Sankarjang
• Tools found: Pointed butt, celts, chisel, shouldered axes.

South India: Cattle Keeping and Settlements

• Regions: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
• Tools:
  • Stone axes
  • Blades
• Fire-baked figurines suggest cattle keeping.
• Major sites:
  • Karnataka: Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, Maski
  • Andhra Pradesh: Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram
  • Tamil Nadu: Paiyyampalli

North-East India: Shifting Cultivation

• Period: 2500-1500 BC.
• Important sites:
  • Daojali Hading
  • Sarutaru
• Shifting cultivation evidence.

Conclusion: The Legacy of the Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age marked a significant transition in human life, sparking the Agricultural Revolution and leading to the rise of civilization. The domestication of plants and animals brought advancements in technology, social organization, and cultural expression.