Indo-Scythians (Shakas) in Indian History - Migration, Rule, Influence & Decline

Introduction to the Indo-Parthian Empire: Origins and Influence

In ancient Indian Sanskrit texts, the Sakas and Parthians are often mentioned together as Saka-Pahlavas. This reflects their simultaneous presence in different regions of northwestern and northern India.

• Parthia corresponded roughly to modern Khorāsān in Iran.
• The Parthians ruled from 247 BCE to 224 CE, establishing a vast empire extending from the Mediterranean to India and China.
• The Parni, a Scythian tribe from Central Asia, later became the Parthians and took over the Seleucid Empire, resisting the Romans.
• The Parthian Empire was founded by Arsaces I and stretched from Turkey to eastern Iran.
• The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, west of the Parthian homeland, was founded in the late 1st century BCE by Gondophares, a Scythian (Saka) king.
• Their first capital was Taxila in present-day Pakistan, later shifting between Kabul and Peshawar.

Origins of the Parthians

The Parthians originally came from Iran. Over time, their rulers migrated to the Indo-Iranian borderlands and then into northwestern India, likely as representatives of the Parthian Empire.

The Sakas of Seistan (Iran-Afghanistan) were in close contact with the Parthians. As a result, the Indian Sakas exhibited a mix of Scythian and Iranian Parthian elements.

The Parthians or Pahalava: Origins and Characteristics

The Parthians, also known as Pahalava, were a formidable group of horsemen originating from the regions beyond the Persian deserts, specifically southeast of the Caspian Sea. Their lifestyle was akin to that of modern Turkomans, characterized by a rude and hardy nature. Their homeland, along with Chorasmioi, Sogdioi, and Arioi (modern Khwarizm, Samarkand, and Herat), was part of the sixteenth satrapy under Darius. These tribes, armed with cane bows and short spears, contributed contingents to Xerxes' army. During the time of Alexander and the early Seleucids, Parthia and Hyrkania were combined into a single satrapy. Unlike the Bactrians, the Parthians resisted the adoption of Greek culture, maintaining their traditional nomadic and pastoral habits, excelling in both horse management and archery.

Sources of Indo-Parthian History

The city of Taxila is considered a key site for understanding the Indo-Parthians, with significant archaeological finds uncovered by Sir John Marshall, including numerous Parthian-style artifacts. The nearby Jandial temple is widely interpreted as a Zoroastrian fire temple from the Indo-Parthian period. Ancient texts, such as the Acts of Thomas, provide literary evidence of Indo-Parthian presence, particularly the story of Saint Thomas the Apostle serving at the court of King Gudnaphar (Gondophares). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century navigational guide, mentions Parthian kings engaged in conflicts in the region of Sindh, then known as Scythia. The Takht-i-Bahi inscription offers crucial chronological data, with dates linked to Maharaja Guduvhara, further solidifying the historical timeline.

The Historical Significance of Gondophares in the Indo-Parthian Kingdom

• Gondophares (c. 20–10 BCE) conquered the former Indo-Scythian kingdom, possibly after the death of Azes.
• He ruled Arachosia, Seistan, Sindh, Punjab, and the Kabul Valley.
• After his death, the empire fragmented.
• His title was later adopted by Sarpedones (Gondophares II) and later by Orthagnes (Gondophares III Gadana).
• By the mid-1st century CE, the Kushans under Kujula Kadphises began absorbing the northern Indian part of the kingdom.

Gondophares and the Christian Tradition

Gondophares, whose reign began around 21 A.D. and lasted approximately thirty years, is a pivotal figure, ruling over the Kabul valley and Punjab. His name is deeply entwined with Christian tradition through his association with St. Thomas the Apostle, who is believed to have evangelized the Parthians. This belief is supported by writings from Origen and the Clementine Recognitions. Christian texts refer to King Gundaphar (or Gudnaphar) and his brother Gad, who are said to have been converted by St. Thomas. The Takht-i-Bahi inscription, dated to A.D. 47, mentions King Guduvhara (Gondophernes), aligning with the Christian narratives. This connection places Gondophernes as a contemporary of St. Thomas. Gondophares expanded his rule from Southern Afghanistan to include Peshawar, though his initial control of Gandhara was limited. The coins of Aspavarman document his eventual acceptance of Gondophares' suzerainty, indicating the shift in power.

The Rise of Indo-Parthian Kings in India

Maues (or Mauas) was among the earliest known Indo-Parthian rulers, gaining power in the Kabul valley and Punjab around 120 B.C. He adopted the prestigious title "Great King of Kings," first used by Mithridates I. His coinage shows strong similarities to those of Mithridates and other Parthian leaders, including Arsaces Theos. King Moga, likely the same as Mauou mentioned on coins, was a significant figure in Taxila. Vonones (Onones), of clear Parthian origin, succeeded Maues, followed by his brother Spalyris, and then a succession of kings including Azes I, Azilises, Azes II, and Gondophares. These rulers are primarily documented through their coinage, providing valuable insights into their reigns.

The earliest Indo-Parthian ruler was Maues (Moga), who gained power in the Kabul Valley and Punjab around 120 BCE. His title, “Great King of Kings”, was first used by Mithridates I.

• His coins resembled those of Mithridates I and Parthian ruler Arsaces Theos.
• Maues' successor was likely Vonones (Onones), followed by his brother Spalyris and later rulers:
• Azes I
• Azilises
• Azes II
• Gondophares

The Role of Religion in the Indo-Parthian Culture

• Unlike the Indo-Greeks and Indo-Scythians, no direct records exist of Indo-Parthians supporting Buddhism.
• Their coins rarely depict Buddhist symbols, suggesting they followed Zoroastrianism, their native Iranian faith.
• However, some coins of Gondophares I depict the Hindu deity Shiva.

Architectural and Artistic Achievements

• The city of Taxila was a major Indo-Parthian center.
• The Jandial temple is believed to be a Zoroastrian fire temple.
• Sirkap (1–60 CE) contained early examples of Gandharan art, blending Hellenistic and Parthian influences.
• Numerous stone palettes from Gandhara exhibit Greek, Persian, and Parthian artistic styles.

Decline of the Indo-Parthians

Following the death of Gondophares, the Indo-Parthian empire fractured into smaller principalities, ruled by figures such as Sanabares and Pakores. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea reflects the internal strife among these rulers in Sindh. The Kushana dynasty ultimately supplanted the Indo-Parthians in Afghanistan, Punjab, and Sindh. The Panjtar inscription and other archaeological evidence, including inscriptions at Taxila, Sui Vihar, and Mohenjo-daro, illustrate the Kushan expansion. The Chinese writer Panku mentioned the Yue-chi presence in Kabul (Kao-fou) by A.D. 92, indicating the Kushan ascendancy. Kujula Kadphises, the Kushan king, initially allied with the Parthians, but eventually waged war and destroyed their power. The coins of Abdagases and Orthagnes show the gradual retreat of the Indo-Parthians southward, driven by the advancing Yueh-chi, who ultimately expelled them from the Punjab by the end of the first century A.D.

After Gondophares, the Indo-Parthian Empire fragmented into smaller principalities:

• Sanabares ruled in Sistan.
• Pakores ruled in Kandahar and Western Punjab.
• Other minor rulers were noted in Taxila by Sir John Marshall.

The Periplus (c. 60-80 CE) describes internal conflicts among Indo-Parthian princes. Eventually, they were overthrown by the Kushans:

• The Panjtar inscription (year 122) confirms Kushan control over Peshawar.
• The Taxila inscription (year 136) records a Buddhist relic under the Kushans.
• The Sui Vihar and Mohenjo Daro inscriptions prove Kushan expansion into the Lower Indus Valley.
• The Chinese historian Panku (92 CE) noted that the Yue-chi (Kushans) had occupied Kabul before his time.
• Chinese explorer Zhang Qian described Parthia as an advanced urban civilization.
• Trade between India and China flourished along the Silk Road.
• Parthians facilitated the exchange of ideas, goods, and religions across Asia.