Explore the rise of the Rajputs in medieval India, their role in regional politics, administrative governance, military resilience, and cultural achievements during 750 AD to 1200 AD.

Early Medieval Period of Indian History (AD 750 to AD 1200)

• Overview of Early Medieval India

  The period between AD 750 and AD 1200 is referred to as an early medieval period of Indian History. It was earlier treated by historians as a ‘dark phase’. It was so because during this time the whole country was divided into numerous regional states which were busy fighting with each other. But recent studies have indicated that, though politically divided, India witnessed a growth of new and rich cultural activities in the fields of art, literature, and language. In fact, some of the best specimens of temple architecture and Indian literature belong to this period. Thus, far from being ‘dark,’ it may be treated as a bright and vibrant phase of Indian history.

• Learning Objectives of Early Medieval India

  • Identify the various regional kingdoms which emerged during AD 750 and AD 1200.
  • Examine the nature of the state.
  • Highlight the social and economic changes.
  • Evaluate the cultural activities.
  • Assess the significance of India’s contact with Southeast Asia during the 8th and 12th centuries.

• Political Developments in Early Medieval India

  The political developments after Harshavardhan can be best understood if we divide the period from AD 750 to AD 1200 into two parts:

  • AD 750–AD 1000
  • AD 1000–AD 1200

  The first phase was marked by the growth of three important political powers in India: Gurjara Pratiharas in North India, Palas in Eastern India, and Rashtrakutas in South India. These powers were constantly fighting with each other to set up control over the Gangetic region in Northern India, leading to the famous ‘Tripartite struggle’.

• Regional Powers and Their Contributions

  • Gurjara Pratiharas Dynasty

    Founded by Nagabhatta I in Malwa during the 8th century, the Gurjara Pratiharas expanded their influence under Vatsaraja. The Tripartite struggle saw their conflicts with the Palas and Rashtrakutas. Despite frequent battles, the Gurjara-Pratiharas retained control over Kannauj. One of the notable kings, Mihira Bhoja, was praised by the Arabian scholar Sulaiman for maintaining a secure empire.

  • Pala Dynasty in Eastern India

    The Pala Dynasty was established by Gopala in the 8th century. His successors, Dharmapala and Devapala, extended the Pala influence. They were ardent followers of Buddhism, establishing viharas and promoting learning at institutions like Vikramashila University. The university became a prominent center for Buddhist education and cultural exchange.

  • Rashtrakuta Dynasty in South India

    The Rashtrakuta Dynasty was founded by Dantidurga in the 8th century. Their capital was Manyakheta. King Dhruva played a crucial role in the Tripartite struggle. Notably, Krishna I built the magnificent Kailasha Temple at Ellora, a monolithic structure dedicated to Lord Shiva. The Rashtrakutas maintained friendly relations with Arab traders, facilitating commercial exchange.

  • Chola Dynasty and Their Expansion

    The Chola Empire emerged as a dominant power between AD 1000 and AD 1200. Founded by Vijayalaya after defeating the Pallavas, the Cholas expanded under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I. They built the grand Brihadesvara Temple at Tanjore and established maritime dominance by conquering Sri Lanka, Maldives, and regions of Southeast Asia. Kullotunga was the last significant Chola king before the empire’s decline.

• Cultural Growth Amidst Political Conflicts

  Despite political instability, cultural growth flourished across different regions. Significant advancements were made in art, architecture, literature, and religious studies. Distinct regional styles emerged, contributing to the rich cultural heritage of India.

Early Medieval Indian State Structure and Socioeconomic Changes

• Nature of the Decentralized State in Early Medieval India

  • The early medieval Indian state structure was often characterized as a decentralized political system. This meant that although there was a king at the top, he shared his authority with smaller chiefs known as feudatories or samantas.
  • The term Samanta referred to defeated kings who retained their kingdoms under the suzerainty of the conqueror, offering tributes and military support when needed.
  • These chiefs held administrative autonomy over their regions, leading to frequent challenges to the central authority, especially during the decline of powerful empires like the Pratihara empire.

• Land Grants and Feudalism in Early Medieval India

  • The tradition of granting lands, initiated by the Satavahanas and continuing post-Gupta, expanded significantly. Land grants were awarded to Brahmanas, religious institutions, and state officials.
  • This practice stemmed from the decline in trade and shortage of coined money, with archaeological evidence supporting the scarcity of coins during this period.
  • Land grants created independent zones of authority with minimal interference from the central state, further fragmenting the polity.

• Chola Administration and Village Assemblies

  • The Chola dynasty in South India followed a distinct administrative system with significant local autonomy.
  • Two types of village assemblies, Sabha (Brahmana villages) and Ur (non-Brahmanical settlements), were responsible for local governance, tax collection, and temple management.
  • The self-governing assemblies reflected a balance between central authority and local administration, enhancing administrative efficiency.

• Social and Economic Changes in Early Medieval India

  • Caste Proliferation and Social Transformation

    • The proliferation of castes occurred due to the incorporation of local tribal communities into the Brahmanical social order as Sudras.
    • The expansion of agricultural settlements, driven by land grants, facilitated this social transformation.

  • Rise of Rajputs and Their Origin

    • The Rajputs, including dynasties like the Chahmanas, Paramaras, Pratiharas, and Chandellas, emerged as a warrior class.
    • Some historians suggest their descent from foreign invaders like the Sakas, Kushanas, and Hunas, while others link their rise to agricultural expansion and local chiefdoms gaining power.
    • To legitimize their authority, they aligned with Brahmanas through rituals and genealogical validation.

  • Economic Decline and Revival

    • The period between AD 750 and AD 1000 saw economic decline, marked by a lack of coins and deteriorating towns in northern India.
    • Post AD 1000, trade revived with increased agricultural surplus and the expansion of trade networks led by Arab traders along coastal regions.
    • In South India, the Cholas maintained extensive commercial ties with Southeast Asia, including Malaya, Indonesia, and China.

Cultural Developments in Early Medieval India

• Development of Regional Languages and Literature

  • Several modern Indian languages, including Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, and Marathi, began to take shape during this period.
  • Regional literature started replacing the earlier dominance of Sanskrit, often flourishing under the patronage of regional rulers.
  • Notable literary works include:
    • The Tamil Ramayana by Kamban under the Cholas.
    • The Kannada epic Vikramarjuna-Vijaya (Pampa Bharat) by Pampa.
    • The Telugu Mahabharata, started by Nanniah and completed by Tikkanna in the 13th century.
  • Despite the rise of regional languages, Sanskrit remained significant among the elite as a language of learning.
  • Key Sanskrit texts of this period include:
    • Kathasaritasagara – A collection of stories.
    • Rajtarangini – A historical account of the kings of Kashmir by Kalhana.
    • Gita Govinda – A devotional poem about Radha and Krishna by Jayadeva in Bengal under the Pala kings.

• Temple Architecture and Sculpture

  The construction of temples during this period symbolized the might and wealth of the ruling kings. The grander the temple, the greater the king's power and resources. Three distinct styles of temple architecture evolved:

  • Nagara Style (North India)

    • Characterized by a towering spire or Shikhara.
    • Prominent in Central India, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Orissa.
    • Notable examples:
      • Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar)
      • Sun Temple (Konark)
      • Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Khajuraho) built by the Chandella kings.

  • Dravida Style (South India)

    • Reached its peak under the Chola dynasty.
    • Key features:
      • Garbhagriha: Inner sanctum housing the main deity.
      • Vimana: Storeyed structure above the Garbhagriha.
      • Mandapa: Pillared hall in front of the sanctum.
      • Gopuram: Towered gateway of the temple complex.
    • Famous example: Brihadishvara Temple at Tanjore, built by Chola king Rajaraja.

  • Vesara Style (Mixed Style)

    • Combines features of Nagara and Dravida styles.
    • Patronized by the Chalukyas.
    • Notable site: Temples at Pattadakal, Karnataka.

• Sculptural Advancements

  During this period, significant progress was made in the art of sculpture. A remarkable contribution of Chola artists was the creation of bronze images of Nataraja, depicting Lord Shiva performing the cosmic dance. These sculptures are celebrated for their rhythm and artistic balance.

Contact with Southeast Asia

• Indians have historically engaged in trade and other activities, establishing contact with Southeast Asia as early as the 5th century B.C..
• Jataka Buddhist texts mention Indian traders visiting Suvarnadvipa (Java).
• Archaeological finds in Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia confirm Indian contact dating back to the 1st century B.C..
• Chinese records suggest the kingdom of Funan (Cambodia) was founded in the 4th century A.D. by an Indian Brahmin named Kaundinya.

Trade and Cultural Exchange

• Southeast Asia was rich in cardamom, sandalwood, camphor, cloves, which were major trade commodities.
• Indian traders initially settled along the coast but gradually expanded inland.
• Buddhist monks and Brahmanas traveled to Southeast Asia to cater to Indian settlers' religious needs.
• Indian culture mixed with local traditions, leading to a hybrid culture rather than outright replacement.

Influence of Indian Culture

• Sanskrit was widely used in royal courts and religious texts, though local languages coexisted.
• The varna system was known, and Brahmanas held high status, but caste divisions were not as rigid as in India.

Shailendra Empire

• Established in the 8th century A.D., encompassing Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula.
• A leading naval power controlling trade routes between India, China, and the West.
• Shailendra rulers were followers of Buddhism and had close ties with Indian kingdoms.
• Cultural contributions:
  • A Buddhist monastery at Nalanda, built by a Shailendra king with support from Pala king Devapala.
  • A Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam, constructed with permission from Chola king Rajaraja I.
  • The famous Barabudur temple in Java, built on a hill with nine receding terraces.

Hindu Influence

• Hindu deities like Vishnu and Shiva were widely worshipped in Southeast Asia.
• Numerous Hindu temples built in the region show strong Indian architectural influence.
• The famous Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia was dedicated to Vishnu by Surya Varman II in the 12th century A.D..
• It features:
  • A massive moat filled with water.
  • A grand gopuram (gateway).
  • Galleries with sculptures based on the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Summary of the Period (AD 750–AD 1200)

• Political Developments: The period saw decentralized rule with the rise of Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas (East), Rashtrakutas (South), Rajputs (North), and Cholas (South).
• State System: A decentralized polity where kings shared power with Samantas (feudal chiefs).
• Economic Trends: Decline in overseas trade led to increased land grants for religious and administrative purposes.
• Social Changes: Many tribal groups took up agriculture and were assimilated into Brahmanical society.
• Cultural Growth: Rise of regional languages and literature, alongside the evolution of Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara temple architecture.
• Southeast Asian Influence: Indian traders, priests, and cultural practices deeply impacted Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia.