The Rise of Sungas
North-Western India: Interactions and Influences
North-western India had always maintained active contacts with Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia. In the post-Mauryan period, population movements across Central Asia had a direct impact on the political situation in northern and north-western India, particularly in the regions west of the upper Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
Since the middle of the second century BCE, regions of Central Asia and the area between the Caspian Sea and China were embroiled in conflicts among various nomadic tribes. These tribes, known as the Scythians, Sakas, Huns, and Turks, started migrating from the Steppes in search of new pasture lands after being blocked from China.
Foreign Invasions and Political Changes
Early on, invasions such as the Achaemenid invasion and Alexander’s campaigns had opened north-western India to successive conquests. Consequently, in rapid succession:
- The Greeks or Yavanas (as they were known in India) arrived.
- The Scythians (Sakas) and the Parthians (Pahlavas) followed.
- The Kushanas, a branch of the Yueh-chi tribe, soon entered the region.
These migrations and invasions did not stop in the early period; rather, the movement of people across the north-west frontier continued for centuries.
Geophysical and Cultural Linkages
The Indo-Iranian borderlands' geophysical characteristics facilitated easy linkages between:
- West and Central Asia on one hand.
- Regions to the south of the Hindu Kush on the other.
Indian rulers maintained close contact with the north-west. A notable example is Ashoka, whose bilingual inscription was found at Kandahar in Greek and Aramaic, indicating active Indo-Greek interactions.
Ashoka's references to the Yonas (Yavanas) in his empire and the five Yona rulers of West Asia, North Africa, and Greece in RE.XIII further highlight Indo-Hellenistic connections.
Political Developments in Central and South India
While the north-west was witnessing these changes, in the east, Central India and the Deccan were undergoing transitions. Here, the Mauryas were succeeded by:
- The Sungas
- The Kanvas
- The Satavahanas
Among these, the most prominent dynasties that shaped the political landscape were the Sungas, Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushanas.
Sources of Information for This Period
Our understanding of this period is derived from multiple sources, including:
- Mahabhasya of Patanjali
- Divyavadana
- Puranas
- Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa
- Harshacharita of Banabhatta
- Inscriptions from Ayodhya, Vidisa, and Bharhut
Additional sources include:
- The Gargi Samhita
- Coins issued by minor ruling families, providing the names of rulers
- Inscriptions in Kharosthi script found in Gandhara
- Numerous Kharosthi documents recovered from Central Asia
- Greek and Latin sources referring to the rulers of north-western India
The Pali work Milinda-Panha (The Questions of Milinda) provides insights into the Yavana king Menander and the influence of Buddhism during this time.
Chinese Chronicles and Central Asian Interactions
Chinese historical chronicles contain several references to events in Central Asia, Bactria, and north-west India. Notably:
- Early and later Han dynasty chronicles provide extensive details on the history of the Yueh-chi or Kushanas.
These diverse sources together help reconstruct the dynamic political, economic, and cultural landscape of north-western India during this transformative period.
The Rise of the Sunga Dynasty
The last king of the Mauryas, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga in 180 BCE. This event is corroborated by Bana, the court poet of Harshavardhana of Kannauj.
The Sungas were brahmanas, with several references to Sunga teachers found in Vedic texts. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad mentions a teacher named Sungiputra. From Panini, we learn that the Sungas belonged to the Bharadvaja gotra. However, conflicting sources, including Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitra and the Baudhayana Srauta Sutra, create uncertainty about whether Pushyamitra was of Bharadvaja gotra or from the Baimbika Kashyapa lineage. Despite these uncertainties, all sources agree that the Sungas were brahmanas.
Duration and Rulers of the Sunga Dynasty
According to the Puranas, the Sunga rule in India lasted for 112 years, with Magadha as the kingdom's nucleus. The usurpation of the Mauryan throne by Pushyamitra is recorded in both the Puranas and Banabhatta’s Harshacharita.
- Pushyamitra Sunga ruled for 36 years and died in 151 BCE.
- His son and successor was Agnimitra.
- Agnimitra was succeeded by his son Vasumitra.
- The Puranas mention ten Sunga rulers, but except for Pushyamitra, Agnimitra, Vasumitra, and Dhanadeva, the historicity of others is uncertain.
Conflict with the Yavanas (Bactrian Greeks)
Pushyamitra Sunga is notable for his encounters with the Yavanas (Bactrian Greeks). According to Patanjali’s Mahabhasya (III.2.111), Greek incursions occurred during Sunga rule. This is corroborated by the Yugapurana, which states that:
- The Greeks besieged Saketa (near Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh).
- The Greeks besieged Madhyamika (Nagari near Chittor in Rajasthan).
The phrase “Arunòad Yavano Saketam, Arunòad Yavano Madhyamikam” confirms these events. Patanjali also notes that the Yavanas lived outside Madhyadesha, east of Adarsa. The Mahabhasya is dated to around 150 BCE.
Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram recounts the defeat of the Yavanas by Vasumitra, grandson of Pushyamitra. The play describes:
- Vasumitra escorting the sacrificial horse before the Ashvamedha yajna.
- His defeat of the Yavanas on the banks of the Sindhu River.
- The successful completion of the Ashvamedha sacrifice after Vasumitra’s victory.
It is uncertain who led the Bactrian Greek army, with Menander, Demetrius, and Eucratides being possible candidates.
Religious Policies of the Sungas
After Ashoka’s embrace of Dhamma and Buddhism, the Sungas are noted for reverting to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva credits Pushyamitra Sunga with performing two Ashvamedha sacrifices.
Buddhist sources claim that Pushyamitra persecuted Buddhists. The Divyavadana describes him as a destroyer of Buddhist monasteries, particularly those built by Ashoka, and states that:
- He attempted to destroy the Kukuta Arama monastery at Pataliputra.
- He offered a reward of 100 dinaras for every monk’s head.
However, these accounts seem exaggerated. If the Sunga period saw the renovation of stupas and Buddhist monuments, it is unlikely that they acted aggressively against Buddhists.
Royal Titles and Divine Kingship in the Post-Mauryan Period
Another feature of this period was that the kings assumed grandiose titles. This is in contrast to the Mauryan period when Ashoka called himself only Raja. In this period, however, we see the use of titles like Maharaja, Rajaraja, Rajati Raja, and Shaonanoshao. Vedic sacrifices like Asvamedha and Rajasuya were performed with a view to augmenting royal power.
Theoretical treatises of this period uphold the concept of divine creation or divine origin of the king. The Manusmriti explains that Prajapati (the Creator) created the king by combining the essence of divinities like Indra, Varuna, Vayu, Yama, and Agni. A similar description also appears in the Ramayana, which presents the king as someone who must not only be always obeyed but also revered (manyascha pujyascha nityada). Thus, the relationship with divinity formed a crucial aspect of the polity of the period.
The End of the Sunga Dynasty and the Rise of the Kanvas
The last Sunga king was Devabhuti. He was killed by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva. Thus, the Sunga line came to an end by 75 BCE. They were followed by the Kanvas, whose founding member was Vasudeva.
Sunga Rule and Territorial Extent
The Sunga rule, with its center at Pataliputra, seems to have embraced territories in the middle Ganga plain, the upper Ganga valley, and eastern Malwa. According to the Divyavadana and Taranatha’s account, it also included Jalandhara and Sakala in Punjab. Two Prakrit inscriptions at Bharhut, datable to the first century BCE, clearly refer to ‘rule of the Suga’ (Suganam raje), meaning ‘of the Sunga’ dynasty. Some of the more distant regions were probably not directly under their control and merely owed them political allegiance.
Sunga Administrative Structure
The organization of the Sunga kingdom likely varied over its 112-year rule, depending on the power and ability of the ruler at the center and the extent of the empire. Pushyamitra Sunga likely had a central administration at Pataliputra, assisted by:
- A council of ministers and bureaucrats
- Provincial divisions governed by royal family members
- Autonomous tribal regions integrated into the empire
Patanjali mentions a sabha convened under Pushyamitra, possibly functioning as a council of ministers or an assembly. The Malavikagnimitram mentions that Agnimitra, the Viceroy at Vidisha, was assisted by a council of ministers. The princes of royal blood were appointed as:
- Governors - Example: Agnimitra, son of Pushyamitra, was a governor
- Commanders-in-Chief - Example: Vasumitra, grandson of Pushyamitra, was the Commander-in-Chief of the Sunga army
The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva proves that one of his forefathers was the governor of Kosala and related by blood to Pushyamitra. Both Kalidasa and Patanjali mention a mantriparishad, which may have been an important element in governance.
After Pushyamitra’s demise, the Sunga kingdom weakened, and his successors may have ruled in the Vidisha area for some time. The Malavikagnimitram portrays Agnimitra as the Viceroy at Vidisha (near Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh), referring to a conflict between Pushyamitra and Yajnasena, king of Vidarbha (eastern Maharashtra). The Sungas were victorious.
The drama also describes Vasumitra’s victory over a Yavana king in an area south of the Sindhu river (possibly the Kalisindh in Madhya Pradesh or the Indus). Some members of Pushyamitra’s family may have ruled in Kosala (Uttar Pradesh). The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva describes him as the lord of Kosala and the sixth in descent from Senapati Pushyamitra. Pushyamitra is praised in the inscription for having performed two horse sacrifices (dvirasvamedhayajin), which alludes to his military success. This is the first inscription on stone or metal that mentions the name of Pushyamitra, as he was previously known only from literary sources.
Decline of the Sungas
The Kanvas, who perhaps began their political career as subordinates of the Sungas (called Shungabhrityas in the Puranas), eventually ended Sunga rule. The last ruler, according to the Puranas, was Devabhuti (or Devabhumi). According to Bana, he was the victim of a conspiracy engineered by his brahmana minister Vasudeva and was killed by a slave girl who approached him in the guise of a queen.
Altogether, ten Sunga kings ruled for a period of 112 years from c.187 to 75 BCE.
Patronage of Art by the Sunga Empire
The Sunga Empire played an important role in patronizing art. Bharhut, Bodhgaya, and Sanchi bear evidence of the patronage received from the Sunga rulers. The following structures are believed to have been built during this period:
- The gates and railings of the Bharhut Stupa
- The fine gateway railings surrounding the Sanchi Stupa
A phenomenal spatial expansion of Buddhist monastic sites occurred from the second-first centuries BCE onwards. This period saw the flowering of visual arts, including:
- Small terracotta images
- Larger stone sculptures
- Architectural monuments, such as:
- The Caitya hall at Bhaja
- The Stupa at Bharhut
- The Great Stupa at Sanchi
Characteristics of Sunga Art
A most characteristic formal quality of Sunga art is its flowing linear rhythm, which binds all isolated objects in one continuous stream of life. The following features define Sunga artistic style:
- The coping stones of the period feature huge lotus stalks flowing in rhythmical waves from form to form.
- The vegetal world is intimately, engrossingly, and luxuriously rendered in the reliefs at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, and Sanchi.
- The art is dominated by radiating and continuous linear movements, making human and animal figures appear as equal and integral parts of the whole composition.
Human Figures and Religious Themes
The Sunga artists showed a strong interest in the human figure. Their reliefs illustrate:
- Episodes from the life of Buddha
- Incidents depicting contemporary life
Some sculptures from Bharhut, Bodhgaya, and Sanchi represent the first organized art activity distinct from the Mauryan court art. The art of this period reflects:
- The ethnic, social, and religious fusion and integration taking place at the time.
Religious Developments During the Sunga Period
Important religious developments also took place during the Sunga period. One of the most significant was Patanjali’s synthesis of the tradition of Yoga, which became the foundation of one of the major schools of thought.