The Chandellas established their control over Bundelkhand, located to the south of Kanauj. Their prominence emerged in the 10th century, particularly in the region of Khajuraho. Among the rulers of the Chandella dynasty, Vidhyadhara was one of the most notable. He played a significant role in the defeat and death of Rajyapala, the last ruler of the Pratihara dynasty of Kanauj, who failed to withstand the invasion of Mahmud Ghazni. Additionally, the Chandella king Kirtivarman successfully resisted an invasion from a Ghaznavid army originating from the Punjab.
The Chandella dominion comprised key regions including Mahoba, Khajuraho, Kalinjar, and Ajaigarh. Despite multiple attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to annex their territory, the Chandellas remained a distinct political entity until the early 14th century.
The origin of the Chandellas remains a subject of historical debate, with no universally accepted consensus. Several theories about their lineage have emerged over time:
The primary strongholds of the Chandellas were Khajuraho, Chhatarpur, Mahoba, Kalinjar, and Rajgarh. Their kingdom was also known as Jaijaka-bhukti, named after the prominent Chandella ruler Jaya Sakti, who held significant influence during their reign.
Initially, the Chandellas served as subordinates to the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The fort of Kalinjar was under Pratihara control before the Chandellas gained dominance. Over time, the Chandellas asserted their independence and established their authority, becoming formidable rulers in their own right.
The rulers of the Chandella dynasty made significant contributions to the political, military, and cultural landscape of central India. From the establishment of their rule to their military conquests and administrative developments, their reign remains a prominent chapter in Indian history. Below are the key achievements of notable Chandella rulers:
Chandravarman founded the Chandella dynasty, and his successors expanded its influence. His son, Nannuka, ascended the throne after his death, followed by Vakapati, who extended the Chandella territory through military conquests.
After Vakapati, his son Jaya Sakti ruled the dynasty with valor. During his reign, the Chandella state came to be known as Jaijakabhukti. Following Jaya Sakti, rulers like Vijaya Sakti, Rahel, and Harsha governed the kingdom. Notably, Harsha was known for his bravery and assisted Bhoja Parmara against a rebellion by his brother. His reign concluded in 925 A.D.
Yasovarman, son of Harsha, succeeded him and declared himself an independent ruler. His military campaigns extended the Chandella influence over various regions:
His conquests reflected his ambition and military strength. Yasovarman assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj and ruled until 950 A.D.
Dhanga, son of Yasovarman, succeeded him and expanded the Chandella kingdom further. His brother, Devalaledhi (also known as Krishna), is mentioned in inscriptions but no significant records are available about him.
Dhanga's territory extended from Bhilsa to Taunasa and from the Yamuna River to the Narmada River. His conquests included:
Dhanga also played a significant role in defending the Indian territories against external invasions. He supported Jayapala of Bhatinda against the invading forces of Subuktagin by joining the confederation of Hindu kings. His leadership and strategic military interventions earned him a reputation as a powerful and independent ruler.
Beyond his military achievements, Dhanga was a notable patron of architecture and culture. He commissioned the construction of several temples, including the famous temples at Khajuraho, showcasing the grandeur and artistic excellence of the Chandella era.
The later Chandella rulers faced numerous challenges from external invasions, particularly from the Ghaznavids. Despite their struggles, they demonstrated exceptional valor and resilience. The contributions of the Chandellas extended beyond military achievements to cultural and literary advancements. Here are the significant rulers and their achievements:
Ganda ascended the throne in 1002 A.D. after the death of his father, Dhanga. Displaying immense courage, Ganda joined a confederation of Hindu kings to counter the Muslim invasions. He killed Rajpala, the Pratihara ruler, for his submission to the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud of Ghazni.
However, when Mahmud launched a sudden invasion with a vast army, Ganda, overwhelmed and confused, fled the battlefield. Despite his retreat, the continuous pressure from the Ghaznavids destabilized the Chandella kingdom. After Ganda’s death, his son Vidyadhar succeeded him.
Vidyadhar marked a new era in the Chandella dynasty. His reign saw the kingdom reach its zenith. After Trilochanpala, the successor of Rajpala, was defeated, Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Vidyadhar's territories. Although Vidyadhar escaped, Mahmud plundered the Chandella lands in his absence.
Three years later, Mahmud launched another invasion, targeting the Kalinjar Fort. Despite a fierce battle, Mahmud failed to breach the Rajput defense. The unwavering valor of the Rajputs compelled Mahmud to seek a treaty with Vidyadhar. Both rulers exchanged gifts as a sign of the agreement.
Vidyadhar’s military prowess also extended to internal conquests:
Vidyadhar is remembered not only as a military leader but also as a patriot and a symbol of Rajput resistance against foreign invasions.
After Vidyadhar’s death, his son Vijaipala succeeded him in 1030 A.D.. Although he initially achieved success against the Gahadvalas, his later defeat marked the beginning of the Chandella decline. Following Vijaipala, several rulers ascended the throne, but their reigns were largely insignificant. The rulers included:
Among them, Madanvarman was notable for his grandson, Parmardi, who played a significant role in the Chandella history.
Parmardi ascended the throne in 1163 A.D. after the death of his grandfather, Madanvarman. His father, Yasovarman, had died before him. During his reign, Parmardi faced fierce battles against the rising powers of North India.
According to the famous text Prithviraj Raso, a significant battle occurred between Prithviraj Chauhan and Parmardi. Notable warriors like Alaha and Udal fought valiantly in this battle, but both were killed. Jai Chand Gahadvala supported Parmardi in the conflict.
In the final years of Parmardi's reign, Qutub-ud-din Aibak launched a severe attack on the Chandella kingdom. Despite Parmardi's resistance, the prolonged siege of Kalinjar Fort resulted in its capture due to a lack of water. The fall of Kalinjar marked a significant blow to the Chandella power. After this defeat, the Chandellas retained control over a small territory, losing their former dominance.
Despite their political decline, the Chandellas made remarkable contributions to Indian culture. Their patronage of art and literature was evident in the magnificent temples of Khajuraho, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. These temples, built with intricate carvings and exquisite sculptures, remain a testament to their architectural excellence.
Additionally, literary works like Jaganika’s composition Alaha-Udal immortalized the bravery of the Chandella warriors, particularly Alaha and Udal. This poetic work is a significant cultural artifact celebrating the valor and spirit of the Rajputs during the Chandella reign.
The Paramaras of Malwa emerged as an influential dynasty, initially serving as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. Towards the end of the 10th century, they revolted against their overlords and established independence with Dhar as their capital. The Paramaras gained significant power under their most renowned ruler, Bhoja (1010-1055 A.D.), a contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.
Bhoja's contributions were particularly notable in the fields of literature and the arts, surpassing his political and military accomplishments. However, during the 12th century, a significant part of the Paramara territory, including Ujjain, fell under the control of the Chalukyas of Gujarat.
The Paramara kingdom was located to the west of the Kalachuri territories. Various theories exist about the origin of the Paramaras, leading to different perspectives among historians.
Some key viewpoints on their origin include:
While the origins of the Paramaras are debated, it is widely accepted that they belonged to the Suryavamsi Rajputs. The Agnikula Rajput narrative may have been constructed to integrate the Paramaras into the traditional Rajput lineage and emphasize their noble heritage.
Some historians also suggest that the Paramaras may have had foreign origins. To counter this perception and reinforce their legitimacy as rulers, the Agnikula theory was introduced, symbolizing their divine creation and valor.
The Paramara dynasty of Malwa was established by Upendra, who served as a chief under the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The Paramaras rose to prominence following the decline of the Pratiharas. After Upendra's death, his successor Vairi Singh I ascended the throne, followed by rulers like Siyaka I, Vakapati I, Vairi Singh II, and Siyaka II (also known as Siyaka Harsha). Siyaka II played a significant role in strengthening the dynasty by defeating the Hunas, conquering the Chalukya king Avantivarman Yogiraja II, and invading the Rashtrakutas to plunder their capital before his death in 973 A.D.
Vakapati Munja, son of Siyaka Harsha, ruled Malwa from 973 to 998 A.D. His reign marked a period of substantial progress and expansion. Known by titles like Utpalraj, Munja, and Amoghavamsa, he assumed the titles of ‘Sriballabha’ and ‘Prithviballabha’, symbolizing his grandeur and authority.
Vakapati Munja demonstrated remarkable military prowess by waging wars against multiple adversaries:
Despite his successes, Vakapati Munja faced six consecutive defeats against the Chalukyas of Karnataka. His final campaign against Taila I, against the advice of his counselor Rudraditya, proved disastrous. After crossing the river Godavari, he was captured. His minister devised a rescue plan, but Munja, having fallen in love with Mrinarvati, the sister of Taila II, disclosed the plan to her. Betrayed by her, Munja was imprisoned and eventually executed. His downfall marked a tragic end to his reign.
Following Vakapati Munja's death, Sindhuraj ruled briefly. During his short reign, he established diplomatic relations with the Nagas by marrying a princess from the Naga dynasty. He also achieved military success by defeating the Chalukyas and sought to expand his territory.
The most illustrious ruler of the Paramara dynasty was Bhoja Paramara, who ruled from 1000 A.D. to 1055 A.D. Following the death of his father Sindhuraj, Bhoja ascended the throne and reigned for approximately 55 years. Known for his military campaigns and administrative abilities, Bhoja greatly enhanced the power and prestige of Malwa.
Throughout his reign, Bhoja fought numerous battles to expand his kingdom. While he achieved several victories, his attempts to conquer the Chalukya kingdom were ultimately unsuccessful. Despite these setbacks, his military prowess significantly strengthened the Paramara domain, leaving a lasting legacy in the region.
Bhoja Paramara initially experienced military success but later faced significant defeats. Determined to erase the humiliation caused by his loss to Jay Singh of the Chalukya dynasty, Bhoja shifted his focus to the Kalachuris of Tripuri. In this campaign, he defeated the Kalachuri king Gangayadeva. Additionally, Bhoja emerged victorious over Indrarath, the king of Odisha, and conquered Kirtiraj of Lata. He also defeated the king of Kanyakubja. However, his ambitions to expand into Bundelkhand were crushed by the Chandella ruler Vidyadhar, forcing him to abandon further advancement in that direction.
Bhoja Paramara launched military campaigns against the Chauhans of Shakumbhari and Naddul. He also fought battles against the rulers of Gujarat and Gwalior. Notably, Bhoja triumphed over the Muslim rulers of Thaneswar, Hansi, and Nagarkot, reclaiming these territories for his kingdom. However, these continuous successes fueled jealousy among his rivals, leading to the formation of a powerful confederation against him.
Despite his bravery, Bhoja was ultimately defeated in the ensuing battles. He died in the midst of the conflict in 1050 A.D., marking the end of his ambitious campaigns. Following his death, the victors looted his capital, causing significant damage to the Paramara state.
The relentless warfare of Bhoja Paramara had profound negative impacts on his kingdom:
Nevertheless, during his reign, the Paramara dynasty reached its zenith in terms of power and prestige. His ambitious campaigns left a legacy that highlighted both his military valor and the consequences of overexpansion.
After the death of Bhoja, several Paramara rulers ascended the throne. However, none of them could match the reputation or achievements of their predecessors. Their rule was marked by constant conflicts with neighboring Rajputs, weakening the dynasty significantly. The notable successors of Bhoja included:
The last Paramara ruler, Subhatvarman, ruled from 1193 A.D. to 1210 A.D.. His reign ended in defeat at the hands of the Yadav king, marking the end of the Paramara dynasty after a long but tumultuous rule.
The Rajput society was deeply rooted in the caste system, which formed the foundation of their social structure. The four primary castes — Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras — were further divided into numerous sub-castes. The system was rigid, and the status of individuals was determined by their caste, with limited social mobility.
The Brahmins occupied the highest position in the social hierarchy and were highly revered for their religious knowledge. They were responsible for imparting spiritual and practical education to society. The prestigious position of Purohit (royal priest) was exclusively reserved for Brahmins, reflecting their privileged status. Due to their respected role, Brahmins were exempt from capital punishment, further emphasizing their esteemed position in religious and spiritual matters.
The Kshatriyas, including the Rajputs, were the ruling and warrior class. Their primary responsibility was the protection of the kingdom from foreign invasions and internal conflicts. Renowned for their bravery and administrative skills, they upheld the defense and governance of their territories.
The Vaishyas played a significant role in trade and commerce. While they were initially engaged in agriculture, over time, they shifted towards trading and gained economic prominence. However, their societal status remained subordinate to Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Additionally, Vaishyas were denied the right to study the Vedas, reflecting the rigid caste-based restrictions.
The Shudras occupied the lowest position in the caste hierarchy. Their primary role was to serve the upper three castes. They faced severe discrimination and were subjected to numerous social restrictions. Prohibited from accessing religious texts and rituals, Shudras were often treated as untouchables. They were not allowed to reside within cities or villages, further isolating them from mainstream society.
Despite the caste-based limitations, women in Rajput society enjoyed considerable freedom and respect. They were not confined to household duties and had the right to participate in various aspects of life, including education and public discourse. The practice of Swayamvara Pratha, where women could choose their husbands, symbolized their autonomy in personal decisions.
Women received proper education and were proficient in Sanskrit. They actively participated in literary and philosophical discussions, often engaging in debates with prominent scholars. A notable example includes the wife of Mandan Mishra, who famously defeated the philosopher Shankaracharya in a debate. Similarly, the renowned poet Raj Shekhar was married to Avanti Sundari, an accomplished scholar herself.
Beyond academics, women were trained in various artistic pursuits, including painting, music, and dance. Their talents were celebrated in public forums, further illustrating their active cultural involvement.
Women of Rajput society were also skilled in warfare. They were trained to handle weapons such as swords and spears, displaying both courage and competence in battle. This aspect of their upbringing was a reflection of the martial spirit that defined Rajput culture, where valor and resilience were valued irrespective of gender.
The economic condition of the Paramara kingdom was primarily dependent on land revenue, which served as the chief source of income. Additionally, the state treasury was supplemented by gifts and tributes from Samants (feudatories), along with various trade taxes.
The rate of land revenue generally ranged from 1/4 to 1/6 of the total agricultural produce. Farmers could pay the tax either in cash or in kind (grains). In cases where a man died without any legal heirs, his property was confiscated by the state, contributing to the royal treasury.
Approximately half of the state's revenue was allocated to the maintenance of a large and powerful army, which was essential for ensuring the kingdom's defense. The army comprised the infantry, cavalry, and elephants, making it a formidable force. A special officer known as the Bhandagarik was responsible for arranging the food and lodging for soldiers, while the Senapati served as the chief commander of the army.
Besides military expenditure, a significant portion of the state’s income was utilized for construction works, including reservoirs, temples, and infrastructure development. Additionally, funds were allocated for charities, festivals, and the promotion of education and learning.
The Paramara rulers made remarkable contributions to art, literature, and architecture. Their court became a center of cultural excellence, attracting prominent scholars, poets, and artists.
King Vakapati Munja was not only a skilled military commander but also a celebrated patron of art and literature. His court flourished with renowned scholars, including Padma Gupta, the author of Navasahasanka, and Dhananjaya, who completed his work Dasbarupka under Munja's patronage. Another eminent scholar named Halayudha also graced his court.
Vakapati Munja's contributions to architecture included the construction of numerous reservoirs. Among them, the most notable was the Munj-Sagar, a tank located in Dhar, which served both utilitarian and aesthetic purposes. Additionally, he commissioned the building of several temples.
King Bhoja Paramara was one of the most illustrious rulers of the Paramara dynasty, celebrated for his immense contributions to literature, education, and culture. Described as ‘Kavirai’ in the Udaipur Prasasti, Bhoja earned a reputation as a great scholar and a generous patron of learning. His dedication to knowledge was so profound that, as noted by historian K.M. Munshi, “Kingship and conquest were to him subsidiary activities.”
Bhoja established a renowned college at Dhara, known as the Bhojshala, which eventually gained the status of a university. Scholars from distant regions traveled to Dhar to study under the finest minds of the time. Among the eminent scholars in his court were Dharmapala, his brother Solhara, and the poetess Sita. Bhoja's wife, Arundhati, was also a distinguished scholar, contributing to the intellectual environment of the court.
A devout worshiper of Lord Shiva, Bhoja constructed numerous temples in honor of the deity. However, despite his personal devotion, he maintained a policy of religious tolerance. Jainism particularly flourished during his reign, as he organized religious conferences that welcomed scholars of diverse beliefs to engage in meaningful discussions.
King Bhoja was a prolific writer with expertise in various fields, including medical science, astrology, mathematics, and grammar. His works left a lasting legacy in the literary world, establishing the Paramara dynasty as a significant patron of learning. The cultural advancements of the Paramaras, particularly under the reign of Vakapati Munja and Bhoja Paramara, remain remarkable milestones in Indian history.