The southern end of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna river was divided into three kingdoms—Chola, Pandya, and Chera or Kerala.
The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman.
All this sounds exaggerated but suggests that the Pandya society was matriarchal.
The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC.
The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.
The Chola kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromandal.
The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas.
The Rise of Brahmanism in South India during the Sangam Era
The state and society that were formed in the Tamil land in the early centuries of the Christian era developed under the impact of Brahmanism.
The Brahmanical influence was confined to a small part of the Tamil territory and only to the upper levels of Tamil society in that area.
The kings performed the Vedic sacrifices.
The Brahmanas, who were the followers of the Vedas, carried on disputations, possibly with the Jainas and the Buddhists.
But the chief local god worshipped by the people was Murugan, who was also called Subramaniya.
Tamil Language and Sangam Literature
All that has been stated above about the life of the Tamils in the beginning of the historical period is based on the Sangam literature.
The available sangam literature, which was produced by these assemblies, was compiled in circa A.D, 300-601).
The early, middle, and fast strata of the texts are yet to be clearly identified, but they contain descriptions which tally with what we know from the Greek and Roman accounts, and from archaeology.
There is no doubt that the art of writing was known to the Tamils before the beginning of the Christian era.
More than 75 short inscriptions in the Brahmi script have been found in natural caves, mainly in the Madurai region.
They provide the specimen of the earliest form of Tamil mixed with Prakrit words.
They belong to the second-first centuries B.C when the Jaina and Buddhist missionaries appeared in this area.
The Purse and the Sword
Trade, foreign and internal, constituted a very important source of royal revenue.
For the safety of merchants and prevention of smuggling, soldiers maintained constant vigil on the road.
Spoils of war further added to royal income.
The tip of the peninsula and the adjacent regions were extremely fertile.
The land produced paddy, ragi, and sugarcane.
In addition to this, the Tamil region produced grains, fruit, pepper, and turmeric.
The king had a share in all this produce.
The state maintained a regular army consisting of chariots drawn by oxen, elephants, cavalry, and infantry.
Taxes enabled the king not only to maintain a professional army but also to pay the poets and priests, who were mainly Brahmanas.
Many Brahmanas functioned as poets and were generously rewarded by the king.
The Tamil Brahmanas took meat and wine.
Civil and military offices were held under both the Cholas and the Pandyas by vallalas or rich peasants.
The ruling caste was called the arasar, and its members had marriage relations with the vallalas.
The rich constituted the peasantry, divided into the rich and the poor.
Agricultural operations were generally carried on by women of the lowest class (kadaisiyar).
Several outcastes and forest tribes suffered from extreme poverty.
Exercises
What is meant by the megaliths? What light do they throw on the material culture of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu?
Answer: The megaliths refer to ancient burial sites characterized by large stone structures. They provide insight into the material culture of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu by revealing burial practices, including the use of pottery, iron objects, and stone circles, shedding light on ancient societal customs and beliefs.
When did the Pandyas first appear in history? Give an account of their activities in the early centuries of the Christian era.
Answer: The Pandyas first appeared in history around the early centuries BCE. In the early centuries of the Christian era, they engaged in prosperous trade with the Roman Empire, sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus, and enjoyed considerable wealth and influence. The Pandya kings also performed Vedic sacrifices, indicating their adherence to Brahmanical traditions.
Where did the Cholas rule first? Narrate the history of Kaveripattanam.
Answer: The Cholas initially ruled from Kaveripattanam, a significant center of trade and commerce situated along the Kaveri River. The city served as the Chola capital and boasted a large dock, facilitating maritime trade. King Karikala, a renowned Chola monarch, constructed extensive embankments along the Kaveri River with the labor of thousands of captives from Sri Lanka.
Mention the commercial activities of the early Tamil kingdoms.
Answer: The early Tamil kingdoms were engaged in lucrative trade activities, including the export of spices like pepper, elephants for ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, and silk. They traded with regions such as the Roman Empire, the Malaya archipelago, Arabia, and China, contributing to their prosperity and wealth.
What is meant by the Sangam literature? Give an account of life covered by it.
Answer: Sangam literature refers to a collection of Tamil poems and texts compiled during the Sangam period, reflecting the social, cultural, and political life of ancient Tamil society. It covers a wide range of subjects, including love, war, ethics, and governance, providing valuable insights into the lives of people, their customs, beliefs, and societal structures during that era.
Cheras Cholas Pandyas | Sangam Age
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