Indo-Greeks in Indian History: Influence and Legacy

Indo-Greeks: Their Influence in Ancient Indian History: Introduction to Indo-Greeks (Key Players in Hellenistic India)

• The Historical Significance of the Indo-Greek Kingdom: The Indo-Greek Kingdom, also known as the Greeco-Indian Kingdom or historically as the Yavana Kingdom, was a significant Hellenistic-eraHellenistic culture represent fusion of ancient Greek world with that of Western Asia, North-eastern Africa & South-western Asia. The consequence of this mixture gave rise to a common Attic-based Greek dialect, known as Koine Greek, which became the lingua franca throughout the ancient world Greek kingdom.
  • It spanned across various regions including parts of Afghanistan and the northwest regions of the Indian subcontinent, primarily covering present-day Pakistan and a small area of Iran.
    • This kingdom flourished from 180 B.C.E. to around 10 C.E., showcasing a rich cultural exchange and influence between Greek and Indian civilizations.

    

  • The foundation of the Indo-Greek Kingdom began when the Greco-Bactrian king DemetriusDemetrius I Poliorcetes was a Macedonian Greek nobleman and military leader who became king of Asia between 306 – 301 BC and king of Macedon between 294–288 BC. A member of the Antigonid dynasty, he was the son of its founder, Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his wife Stratonice, as well as the first member of the family to rule Macedon in Hellenistic Greece. invaded India in 180 B.C.E., leading to the establishment of a new realm that seceded from the powerful Greco-Bactrian Kingdom based in Bactria.

• The end of Achaemenid rule in Iran and the death of Alexander led to the rise of kingdoms ruled by Alexander's generals.
  • The Seleucid kingdom was contiguous with the Mauryan Empire, marking the beginning of new political dynamics.
  • The mingling of Hellenistic Greeks and Indians occurred through the Hellenistic kings who succeeded Alexander's generals.
    • Some differentiate between the Greco-Bactrians (who ruled Bactria) and the Indo-Greeks (who controlled north-west India), while others use the term Indo-Greek in a more general sense.
    • Indian sources refer to them as Yavanas, a term without distinction between mainland Greeks and Hellenistic Greeks.
  • Hellenistic Greek culture was a blend of Greco-Roman culture, Iranian influences, and some Central Asian elements.
    • It can be seen as an evolved Greco-Roman colonial culture, drawn from both the eastern Mediterranean and west Asia.
• The rulers of Bactria and Parthia took advantage of the decline of Seleucid power and became independent by the second century BC.
  • Bactria, a fertile region between the Hindu Kush and Oxus, was more forceful initially in asserting independence.
    • Bactria controlled key northern trade routes, and Greek settlements were established during the Achaemenid period.
  • Diodotus, the governor of Bactria, rebelled against Seleucid king Antiochus and achieved independence.
    • In 206 BC, Antiochus formed an alliance with Subhagasena, an Indian king, to replenish his elephant supply, revealing the vulnerability of north-west India.
  • Demetrius, son of Euthydemus, expanded Indo-Greek rule into Afghanistan, Punjab, and the Indus Valley.
    • He made forays into the Ganges heartland but maintained a strong base in the north-west and Punjab.
    • Indirect evidence, such as references in Patanjali’s Mahabhashya, suggests Indo-Greek raids in the western Ganges Plain and Rajasthan.
• Menander (c. 150–135 BC), known as Milinda, was the most famous Indo-Greek king.
  • Menander is best known for his conversation with the Buddhist philosopher Nagasena, recorded in the Milinda-panha (Questions of King Milinda), which contributed to the spread of Buddhism.
  • During his reign, he stabilized Indo-Greek power and expanded territories in India, notably in the Swat Valley, Hazara district, and the Punjab.
    • His coins were found as far north as Kabul and as far south as Mathura.
    • Menander may have attacked the Shungas in the Yamuna region, possibly even near Pataliputra.
  • After his death, a regency likely followed, and then the reign of Strato began.
• Bactrian rule continued after Menander’s reign under the line of Eucratides, who expanded into Gandhara and annexed Taxila.
  • However, the Bactrians did not hold Taxila for long.
• The Hellenistic Greeks left their mark on cities such as Ai-Khanoum, Bactra, and Sirkap at Taxila.
  • Ai-Khanoum, with its city plan and structures like temples, theatres, and mosaic floors, exemplified Hellenistic urban design.
  • Archaeological findings, including coins, demonstrate the influence of Greek culture in these regions.
  • Hellenistic coins, especially those based on the Attic standard, circulated throughout Bactria and India, featuring portraits and legends in Greek.
• Indo-Greek coinage introduced several innovations in Indian numismatics.
  • Features like die-striking, portraits of rulers, and monograms were unique to Indo-Greek coins and not typical in India.
  • Coins with bilingual legends in Greek and Kharoshthi or Brahmi circulated in the north-west of India, showing regional adaptations.
  • Depictions of deities on coins included Shaiva, Bhagavata, Buddhist, Jaina, Zoroastrian, and Greco-Roman deities.
• Indo-Greek culture symbolized a blending of Greek, Indian, and Iranian influences.
  • For example, at Takht-i-Sangin, a fire-temple with Greek decoration represented this fusion.
  • At Besnagar, the inscription of Heliodorus, a Greek envoy, reveals the acceptance of Vasudeva (Krishna) worship among Greeks.
  • The Bhagavata sect grew in importance, and the sect’s practices facilitated the acculturation of Hellenistic Greeks.
• Despite their influence, the Yavanas were demonized in some Indian texts.
  • The Gargi Samhita portrays the Yavanas as brutal and inhuman, reflecting the tensions between Greek rulers and local religious practices.
  • Patronage by Greek rulers often went to Buddhists and new sects, such as the Shaiva and Bhagavata sects, rather than to traditional Vedic Brahmanism.

The Historical Background: Greek Influence Before the Indo-Greeks

• Preliminary Greek Presence in India: In 326 B.C.E., Alexander III conquered the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent as far as the Hyphasis RiverAlexandria (on the) Hyphasis was the name of the fortress on the west bank of the Hyphasis (Beas) river at which Alexander the Great stopped on 31 Aug 326 BCE in the course of his Indian campaign. It was on the eastern border of Alexander's empire. Today, it is near Amritsar, part of Punjab, India, establishing satrapies that facilitated Greek influence in ancient India.
  • Later, in 303 B.C.E., Seleucus ceded his northwestern territories to Chandragupta Maurya, marking a significant transfer of power and cultural exchange.
  • Several Greeks, including the historian Megasthenes, followed by Deimachus and Dionysius, resided at the Mauryan court, enriching historical records through their observations and the ongoing exchange of gifts.
• Greek Settlements and Cultural Exchange: On these occasions, Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Mauryan rule, fostering a blend of Greek and Indian cultures.
• Ashoka’s Edicts and Diplomatic Relations: Furthermore, in his edicts, Ashoka claimed he sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far as the Mediterranean, illustrating the reach of Buddhism and the significance of cultural diplomacy.
• Greek Influence on Buddhism: The Greeks in India even played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, impacting religious practices and art in ancient India.
• Greek Rule in Bactria and Its Impact on Indian Territory: Bactria, or Bactriana, was an ancient region in Central Asia that became crucial in the interaction between Greek and Indian cultures.
  • Alexander established several cities in neighboring Bactria (Ai-Khanoum, Begram) and an administration that lasted more than two centuries under the Seleucids and the Greco-Bactrians, maintaining direct contact with Indian territory and facilitating trade.
• The Rise of the Sunga Empire and Its Clash with Indo-Greeks (185 B.C.E.): In India, the overthrow of the Maurya Dynasty occurred around 185 B.C.E. when Pusyamitra Sunga, described as a “senapati,” was the commander-in-chief of Mauryan Imperial forces and a Brahmin who assassinated the last Mauryan emperor, Brihadrata.
• Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne and established the Sunga Empire, which extended its control as far west as the Punjab, further altering the geopolitical landscape of the region.

The Indo-Greek Kingdom: A Historical Overview

• History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom: The invasion of northern India and the establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom started around 180 B.C.E. when Demetrius I, son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I, led his troops across the Hindu Kush.
  • Apollodotus, seemingly a relative of Demetrius, led the invasion to the south, while Menander spearheaded the invasion to the east.
  • At a later period, the Greeks advanced to the Ganges River, reportedly as far as the capital Pataliputra, under the orders of Menander, showcasing their expansionist ambitions.
  • According to Strabo, a Greek geographer, Greek advances temporarily reached the Sunga capital Pataliputra (today Patna) in eastern India, highlighting the cultural interactions of the time.
  • To the south, the Greeks may have occupied areas of Sindh and Gujarat down to the region of Surat (Greek: Saraostus) near Mumbai (Bombay), including the strategic harbor of Barygaza (Bharuch).
  • The majority of historians consider Menander-I or Milind
    • >Menander I Soter was also known as Minedra, Minadra, or Milinda (in Pali).He was initially a king of Bactria.
    • His empire extended from Kabul river valley in the west to the Ravi River in the east, and from Swat valley in the north to Arachosia (Helmand in Afghanistan).
    • According to some Indian sources, he went as far as Rajasthan and Pataliputra. He converted to Buddhism and patronised the faith. He died in 130 BC and was succeeded by his son Strato I.
    • The Milinda Panha (composed around 100 BC) records a dialogue between Milinda and the Buddhist sage Nagasena. Originally written in Sanskrit, only the Pali version is available now. In the work, Milinda is described as a wise, learned, and able king. At the end of it, Milinda accepts Buddhism and converts
    (reigned c.165/155 –130 B.C.) the most successful Indo-Greek king, known for his extensive territorial conquests and administrative capabilities.

  

  • Following Menander’s reign, about 20 Indo-Greek kings ruled in succession in the eastern parts of the Indo-Greek territory, contributing to the legacy of Greek culture in India.
  • Later, around 125 B.C.E., the Indo-Greeks suffered encroachments by the Greco-Bactrians in their western territories, marking a significant decline in their influence.
  • The Indo-Greeks may have ruled as far as the area of Mathura until sometime in the first century B.C.E., as noted in the Maghera inscription from a village near Mathura.
  • An inscription on a signet ring from the first century C.E., in the name of king Theodamas from the Bajaur area of Gandhara in modern Pakistan, constitutes the last known mention of an Indo-Greek ruler, signaling the end of an era.

Indo-Greek Ideology: The Role of Buddhism and Cultural Exchange

• Ideology: Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and their rule, especially that of Menander, has been remembered as benevolent, contributing to the cultural richness of ancient India.
  • The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect Greek populations in India and to safeguard the Buddhist faith from religious persecutions by the Sungas, highlighting the interplay between politics and religion.
  • Alternatively, some historians describe the Greek invasions in India as purely materialistic, taking advantage of the decline of the Maurya Empire to acquire territory and wealth, reflecting a pragmatic approach to expansion.
  • Most coins of the Greek kings in India featured Greek inscriptions on the front and Pali on the back (in the Kharoshthi script), indicating a significant concession to another culture—an unprecedented move in the Hellenic world and a testament to the cultural exchange that occurred.

Religious Syncretism: Indo-Greek Beliefs and Practices

• Religion: In addition to the worship of the classical pantheon of Greek deities found on their coins (including Zeus, Herakles, Athena, Apollo), the Indo-Greeks engaged with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.
  • Histories describe Menander I, the “Saviour King,” seemingly a convert to Buddhism, as a great benefactor of the religion, comparable to Ashoka and the future Kushan emperor Kanishka, showcasing the deep cultural and religious exchanges during this period.
  • The Indo-Greek acceptance and promotion of Buddhism contributed to its spread throughout the region, marking a significant era of religious syncretism in ancient India.

Indo-Greek Art: A Fusion of Hellenistic and Indian Styles

• Art: Historians generally consider the coinage of the Indo-Greeks as some of the most artistically brilliant of Antiquity, showcasing exceptional craftsmanship and intricate designs.
  • The Hellenistic heritage, exemplified by sites like Ai-Khanoum, and the artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greeks suggest a rich sculptural tradition. However, very few sculptural remains have traditionally been attributed to them, indicating a gap in the archaeological record.
  • Further, recent research has reaffirmed the possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art. The dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings has been extended to the first decades of the first century C.E., particularly with the reign of Strato II in the Punjab, highlighting the cultural fusion of Greek and Buddhist artistic influences.

Indo-Greek Economy: Insights into Trade and Currency

• Economy: Very little is known about the economy of the Indo-Greeks, yet there are significant indicators of their economic activities.
  • Mining and Coinage: The abundance of their coins suggests large mining operations, particularly in the mountainous region of the Hindu Kush, indicative of a robust monetary economy.
    • This monetary system supported trade and commerce across various regions.
    • The Indo-Greeks minted bilingual coins in both the Greek “round” standard and the Indian “square” standard, facilitating economic interactions.
  • Cross-Border Trade: The adoption of Indo-Greek monetary conventions by neighboring kingdoms, such as the Satavahanas, indicates extensive use of Indo-Greek coins in trade.
    • These practices enhanced economic networks across the region, promoting cultural exchanges.
  • International Trade Routes: An indirect account by the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited Bactria around 128 B.C.E., suggests that trade routes with Southern China traversed northern India.
    • Zhang Qian noted the presence of Chinese products in Bactrian markets, which were transiting through northwestern India.
    • He described it as a civilization comparable to that of Bactria, emphasizing interconnectedness.
  • Maritime Relations: Maritime relations across the Indian Ocean began in the third century B.C.E. and developed during the Indo-Greek period.
    • This expansion coincided with territorial growth along the western coast of India, particularly through the Indus delta and the Kathiawar peninsula.
    • Key trading ports, such as Muziris, became significant for commerce and cultural exchange.

Indo-Greek Armed Forces: Military Strategies and Composition

• Armed Forces: The coins of the Indo-Greeks provide rich insights into their uniforms and weaponry, depicting typical Hellenistic styles.
  • The helmets portrayed are either round in the Greco-Bactrian style or the flat Kausia style of the Macedonians, reflecting the military influences of the time.
  • The Milinda Panha, featuring the dialogues between Nagasena and king Menander, offers a rare glimpse into the military methods and strategies of the Indo-Greek period.
• Historical Record: Currently, 36 Indo-Greek kings are known, with several recorded in both Western and Indian historical sources.
  • The majority are identified through numismatic evidence, highlighting the significance of coins in reconstructing historical narratives.
• Chronology and Scholarship: The exact chronology and sequencing of Indo-Greek rule remains a topic of scholarly inquiry.
  • Adjustments are regularly made with new analyses and discoveries of coin finds, which contribute to our understanding of this era's complex history.

Historical Context and Invasions: The Rise of the Indo-Greeks

• Invasion of the Indo-Greeks: Around 200 B.C., a series of invasions brought the Greeks, specifically the Indo-Greeks, into the Indian subcontinent.
  • Originating from Bactria, an area in modern northern Afghanistan south of the Oxus River, these Greek invaders were initially influenced by the weakening Seleucid Empire.
  • The Seleucid Empire controlled regions including Bactria and Parthia (in present-day IranScythian tribes.
    • The construction of the Great Wall of China further redirected the Scythians' focus toward the Greeks and Parthians, illustrating the complex geopolitical dynamics of the period.

Political Dynamics: The Influence of Scythian Pressure on Indo-Greek Expansion

• Indo-Greek Expansion: Due to the pressure from the Scythians, the Bactrian Greeks turned their focus towards India.
  • The successors of Ashoka, the Mauryan emperor, were unable to defend against these invasions due to their weakened state, resulting in significant territorial losses.
  • Consequently, the Indo-Greeks managed to occupy a significant portion of northwestern India by the beginning of the second century B.C., expanding their territory beyond what Alexander the Great had previously conquered.
    • This expansion not only marked a new chapter in the region's history but also facilitated cultural exchanges between the Hellenistic and Indian civilizations.

Indo-Greek Rule in India

• Indo-Greek Rule in India: Despite their conquests, the Indo-Greeks could not establish a unified rule in India.
  • They ruled through multiple dynasties simultaneously, reflecting a diverse governance structure.
  • Among these rulers, Menander (reigned 165-145 B.C.), also known as Milinda, was the most prominent and influential figure.
    • His capital was at Sakala (modern Sialkot in Punjab), which served as a cultural and political center.
    • Menander extended his influence into the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and is notable for his conversion to Buddhism by the monk Nagasena, who is also referred to as Nagarjuna.
    • Their dialogues were later compiled into a significant text called the "Milinda Panha" or "The Questions of Milinda," highlighting the philosophical exchanges of the era.

Contributions and Legacy

• Importance of Indo-Greek Rule in Indian History: The Indo-Greek rule holds significant importance in Indian history for several reasons:
  • Coinage: The Indo-Greeks were pioneers in India for issuing coins that could be directly attributed to individual kings. This marked a departure from earlier punch-marked coins, whose origins could not be precisely identified.
  • They were also the first to issue gold coins in India, a practice that saw considerable expansion under the Kushan dynasty.
  • Cultural Influence: The Indo-Greeks introduced Hellenistic art features, particularly in the northwestern frontier of India.
    • This blend of Greek and local styles gave rise to Gandhara art, which played a crucial role in the development of Buddhist iconography and Indian art.
• The legacy of the Indo-Greeks thus includes significant contributions to India's numismatic history and artistic heritage, influencing the region's cultural and economic landscapes for centuries.