Construction of Ancient Indian History from scratches formed with the Material remains, Coins, Inscriptions, Oral Traditions, Folklore, Historical Scenes etc.
-->Geographical Extent: The Indus or Harappan culture originated in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, covering regions including Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and parts of western Uttar Pradesh.
It extended from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from the Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west to Meerut in the northeast.
The total area covered approximately 1,299,600 square kilometers, making it larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
-->Major Cities: The civilization boasted several major cities, including Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, both in present-day Pakistan.
Other significant urban centers included Chanhu-daro (Sindh), Lothal (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), and Banwali (Haryana).
The coastal cities of Sutkagan Dor and Surkotada also exhibited Harappan culture, with fortified citadels.
-->Urban Infrastructure: Harappan cities were distinguished by their advanced town-planning, featuring citadels or acropolises, lower towns, and a grid system of streets intersecting at right angles.
Mohenjo-daro's Great Bath, a large tank with changing rooms, stands out as a prominent public structure.
Granaries, brick platforms, and barracks were also notable features, indicating advanced urban infrastructure.
-->While lacking metallic currency, Harappans engaged in extensive trade with regions like Rajasthan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Mesopotamia. Harappan seals found in Mesopotamia attest to commercial ties, with Meluhor Meluhha, likely referring to the Indus region, being mentioned in Sumerian texts.
-->Trade Goods: Goods traded included carnelian, lapis lazuli, gold, silver, copper, ivory, shells, pearls, and semi-precious stones. Agricultural produce such as grains, cotton, and timber were also exchanged.
-->Trade Routes: Trade routes, both overland and maritime, facilitated commerce. The discovery of a dockyard at Lothal suggests maritime trade with the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula.
-->Standardization: Standardized weights and measures, evident from seals and artifacts, facilitated trade and commerce.
-->The political organization of the Indus Valley Civilization is not entirely clear due to the lack of written records.
However, the presence of planned cities, standardized weights and measures, and evidence of trade and craft specialization suggest central authority or administrative control.
-->It is hypothesized that Harappan society was organized along urban centers, with a hierarchical structure possibly led by a ruling elite or priestly class.
-->The religious practices of the Indus Valley Civilization are inferred from archaeological findings rather than textual evidence.
--> Evidence suggests the worship of a mother goddess, depicted in various forms, and the existence of ritual bathing areas, possibly indicating purification rites.
-->The presence of fire altars, animal motifs, and terra-cotta figurines suggests a belief system with elements of animism and nature worship.
-->The significance of water is evident in the presence of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro and the numerous wells and drains found in Harappan cities.
--> The Indus Valley Civilization depicts a male deity, often referred to as the "Priest King" or "Shiva Pashupati."
--> This deity is represented in seated and standing postures, sometimes surrounded by animals such as buffaloes, elephants, and tigers.
-->The significance of this deity in religious or ceremonial contexts is subject to interpretation, with some scholars associating it with fertility and others with aspects of ritual or political authority.
-->The worship of trees and animals is suggested by the presence of terracotta figurines depicting animals, such as bulls and monkeys, and trees with symbolic significance.
--> The reverence for certain animals, such as the bull, may have had agricultural or fertility connotations.
-->The pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) and banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) are often associated with religious or spiritual significance, with depictions found in Harappan seals and artifacts.
-->The Harappan script remains undeciphered, presenting a significant challenge to understanding the language and writing system of the civilization.
--> The script is found on seals, tablets, and other artifacts, but its precise nature, linguistic affiliation, and usage remain uncertain.
-->Attempts to decipher the script have been inconclusive, with scholars proposing various theories and hypotheses but no universally accepted interpretation.
--> Harappan seals are among the most iconic artifacts of the civilization, featuring intricate engravings and inscriptions.
--> Seals were typically made of steatite, a soft stone, and were used for various purposes, including administrative, commercial, and possibly religious or ritualistic functions.
--> The inscriptions on seals remain undeciphered, contributing to the mystery surrounding the Harappan script.
-->Seals often depict animals, mythical creatures, and human figures, providing valuable insights into Harappan iconography and belief systems.
--> Harappan images, including figurines, sculptures, and pottery decorations, reflect the artistic and cultural achievements of the civilization.
-->Human and animal figures are common motifs, often depicted in stylized forms with intricate details.
--> Some images, such as the "Priest King" or "Shiva Pashupati," hold religious or ceremonial significance, while others may represent everyday life or mythological themes.
-->The use of terracotta, bronze, and stone for sculptural works demonstrates the Harappans' mastery of different materials and techniques.
--> Terracotta figurines are a significant category of Harappan artifacts, providing insights into social, religious, and cultural practices.
--> These figurines depict various subjects, including humans, animals, deities, and mythical creatures, in diverse poses and styles.
-->They were likely used for religious rituals, domestic decoration, or as toys, and their widespread distribution suggests their popularity across different Harappan settlements.
-->Terracotta figurines often exhibit exquisite craftsmanship, with fine details and elaborate designs that highlight the artistic sophistication of the civilization.
-->The decline and eventual collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization remain subjects of debate among scholars, with various theories proposed to explain its demise.
-->Possible factors contributing to the decline include
-->environmental changes,
---->such as decreased rainfall and
---->the diversion of river courses, leading to agricultural disruption and resource depletion.
-->Other proposed causes include natural disasters, such as floods or earthquakes, external invasions or migrations, socio-political unrest, and the breakdown of trade networks.
-->The end of urbanism marked a transition to smaller rural settlements, with the Harappan culture gradually assimilating into subsequent cultures and civilizations in the Indian subcontinent.
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