Satavahana Dynasty: Legacy and Influence in Post-Mauryan India

• Satavahanas
  • The Satavahana dynasty was established in the western Deccan in the first century BC. It is also known as the Andhra dynasty, leading to the assumption that they originated in the Andhra region, in the deltas of the Krishna and Godavari Rivers on the east coast.
  • The Satavahanas moved westwards up the Godavari River, finally establishing their power in the western Deccan. The break-up of the Mauryan Empire is believed to have assisted in this process. Ashoka mentioned the Andhras in his domain but not as a conquered kingdom.
  • The widely held opinion now is that the Satavahanas originated in the west and later extended their control to the eastern coast, associated with the name Andhra.
  • The rise of the Satavahanas followed the pattern of transition from chiefdom to kingdom, with newly established kings performing Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule. Their administration reflected a continuation of chiefdoms in the designations of administrators.
  • The Satavahanas likely developed political ambitions because they held administrative positions under the Mauryas and saw the potential for independent kingship after the empire's disintegration.
  • The earliest of the Satavahana kings to receive wide recognition was Satakarni due to his policy of military expansion.
    • Satakarni ruled in the west and was the king against whom Kharavela of Kalinga campaigned.
    • He was also called the "Lord of Pratishthana" (modern Paithan in the Deccan), the capital of the Satavahanas.
    • Numismatic evidence suggests he ruled around 50 BC.
    • His conquests extended north of the Narmada into eastern Malwa, which was threatened by the Shakas at the time.
    • An inscription at Sanchi refers to him as "Rajan Shri Shatakarni," a simple title for an aspirant to kingship over a large domain.
    • Satakarni's next move was southward, conquering the Godavari Valley, and he called himself the "Lord of the Southern Regions." He performed a horse sacrifice to legitimize his rule.
    • Satakarni claimed to have destroyed the khatiyas, possibly referring to the Kshatriya ruling clans of oligarchic polities in western and central India.
  • The western possessions of the Satavahanas were annexed by the Shakas, whom Satakarni had feared. By the first century AD, the Shakas controlled the region north of the River Narmada.
    • Coins struck by the Shaka satrap Nahapana have been found in the Nasik area, indicating Shaka control.
    • The Satavahanas regained their western possessions soon after, with the coins of Nahapana overstruck by the name Gautamiputra Satakarni, who re-established Satavahana power in western India.
  • Vasishthiputra, son of Gautamiputra, ruled in the early second century. He had the additional name of Shri Pulumavi, identified with Siro Polemaios ruling at Baithana (Paithan).
    • The Deccan became a connecting link between the north and south, in politics, trade, and the spread of Buddhism and Jainism.
    • Vasishthiputra claimed that Gautamiputra had uprooted the Shakas, destroyed the pride of the Kshatriyas, and stopped the contamination of the four varnas. He advanced the interests of the twice-born.
  • A matrimonial alliance between the Satavahanas and the Shakas was established to ease relations.
    • The alliance involved the daughter of Rudradaman and the Satavahana king, despite the Satavahanas claiming to have stopped the contamination of the varnas.
    • Rudradaman defeated the Satavahana king twice in battle but refrained from annihilating him due to their close relationship.
    • After Rudradaman's death, the Satavahanas were more successful in their attacks on Shaka territory.
  • By the end of the second century, the Satavahana domain stretched from western India to the Krishna delta and northern Tamil Nadu.
    • However, this extensive domain did not survive long as the Satavahanas weakened and local governors began to assert their independence.
  • The Satavahanas refrained from taking imperial titles, possibly recognizing that their control over local chiefs and kings was not strong enough to justify such titles.
    • Power was distributed throughout the hierarchy of officials, with territories divided into small provinces, each under civil and military officers (amatya, mahabhoja, mahasenapati, mahatalavara, maharathi).
    • Some governors were allowed to marry into the royal family and mint their own coins, a way to fortify their loyalty to the dynasty.
    • Upon the collapse of Satavahana power, these governors became independent rulers.
  • Administration was largely in local hands, with the village as the main administrative unit.
    • Continuity from Mauryan times is seen in the use of terms such as mahamatra for officers and ahara for administrative divisions.
    • Villages provided taxes and might also have been required to provide soldiers during wartime.
  • Some Satavahana kings used matronymics, leading to debates about whether this was due to local matrilineal customs or as a method of identifying rulers more precisely.
  • The Abhiras and the Traikutakas of western India took advantage of the declining Satavahana power.
    • The Vakatakas eventually dominated the northern Deccan, while the Kalachuri-Chedi dynasty asserted control over the northern part of the peninsula.
    • The Kalachuris were among the first to establish an era (AD 248-49) as part of staking a claim to power.
  • In the Ganges Plain, several small kingdoms arose, most importantly to restrain the powers of the northwest.
    • These kingdoms left few traces, but some kings belonged to the dynasties of the Maghas, Bodhis, and Nagas, while others had names ending in the suffix 'mitra'.
  • Further south, the kingdoms of the Shalankayanas, Brihatpalayanas, and Ikshvakus arose around the third to fourth centuries AD.
    • The Shalankayanas and Brihatpalayanas ruled the west Godavari district and Masulipatam area.
    • The Ikshvakus, located further south in the Krishna valley, were likely a local clan who adopted a Suryavamsha lineage name on coming to power.
    • The Ikshvakus are remembered for their gender division of patronage: kings performed Vedic sacrifices while royal women generously supported the Buddhist Sangha.
    • Vedic rituals legitimized the royal family, while Buddhist patronage may have offered a wider network of support.

Political History

• The Satavahana dynasty, according to some interpretations based on the Puranas, belonged to the Andhra jati (a tribe) and was the first Deccanese dynasty to build an empire in Daksinapatha (the southern region).
• At their zenith, the Satavahanas held distant areas of western and central India.
• Based on Puranic evidence, their ascendancy can be dated to late in the 1st century BCE, although some authorities trace the family to the 3rd century BCE.
• Most of our knowledge about the Satavahanas comes from inscriptional and numismatic evidence found in regions like Nasik and Nanaghat.

• The Satavahanas emerged out of the ruins of the Mauryan Empire that declined and disintegrated by the first half of the 2nd century BCE.
• Initially under the sway of the Mauryans, the Andhra country and the Deccan were subsequently ruled by the Satavahanas and Chedi rulers of Odisha.
• The first king, Simuka, is suggested to have begun his reign around 230 BCE according to Puranic lists.
• They faced conflicts with contemporary forces, notably the Sakas of Seistan, and later revived under Gotami-putra Satakarni.
• Gotami-putra Satakarni extended the Satavahana rule significantly, as evidenced by inscriptions like the one at Nashik.
• After Yajnashri Satakarni, the empire gradually declined, eventually ending around the mid-3rd century BCE.
• The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and central India were the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras, who are mentioned in the Puranas.
• The earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas belong to the first century B.C., when they defeated the Kanvas and established their power in parts of central India. The early Satavahana kings appeared not in Andhra, but in Maharashtra, where most of their early inscriptions have been found. They set up their power in the upper Godavari valley, which presently produces rich and diverse crops in Maharashtra. Gradually, the Satavahanas extended their power over Karnataka and Andhra. Their greatest competitors were the Sakas, who had established their power in the upper Deccan and western India.
• At one stage, the Satavahanas were dispossessed of their dominions by the Sakas in Maharashtra and western India. The fortunes of the family were restored by Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 106-130). He called himself the only brahmana, defeated the Sakas, and destroyed many kshatriya rulers. He claims to have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage to which his adversary Nahapana belonged. This claim is true, as more than 8,000 silver coins of Nahapana, found near Nasik, bear marks of being restruck by the Satavahana king. He also occupied Malwa and Kathiawar, which lay under the control of the Sakas. It seems that the empire of Gautamiputra Satakarni extended from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south. Possibly, he also enjoyed general authority over Andhra.
• The successors of Gautamiputra ruled till A.D. 220. The coins and inscriptions of his immediate successor, Vasisthiputra Pulumayi (A.D. 130-154), are found in Andhra, and show that by the middle of the second century, this area had become a part of the Satavahana kingdom. He set up his capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the Godavari in Aurangabad district. The Sakas resumed their conflict with the Satavahanas for the possession of the Konkan coast and Malwa.
• Rudradaman I (A.D. 130-150), the Saka ruler of Saurashtra (Kathiawar), defeated the Satavahanas twice but did not destroy them due to matrimonial relations.
• Yayna Sri Satakarni (A.D. 165-194), one of the later kings, recovered north Konkan and Malwa from the Saka rulers. He was a lover of trade and navigation. His coins have been found not only in Andhra but also in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. His love for navigation and overseas trade is shown by the representation of a ship on his coins.

Administration

• The Satavahana rulers strove for the royal ideal set forth in the Dharmasastras. The king was represented as the upholder of dharma. To him were assigned a few divine attributes. The Satavahana king is represented as possessing the qualities of ancient gods such as Rama, Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna, etc. He is compared in prowess and lustre to these legendary figures and to supernatural forces. This was evidently meant to attribute divinity to the Satavahana king.

• The Satavahanas kept some of the administrative units found in Asokan times. Their district was called ahara, as it was known in the time of Asoka. Their officials were known as amatyus and mahamatras, as they were known in Maurya times.

• But we notice certain military and feudal elements in the administration of Satavahanas. It is significant that the senapati was appointed provincial governor. Since the tribal people in the Deccan were not thoroughly Hinduized and reconciled to the new rule, it was necessary to keep them under strong military control. The administration in the rural areas was placed in the hands of gaulmika, who was the head of a military regiment consisting of nine chariots, nine elephants, 25 horses, and 45 foot-soldiers. The head of the army platoon was therefore posted in the countryside to maintain peace and order.

• The military character of the Satavahana rule is also evident from the common use of such terms as kataka and skandhayaras in their inscriptions. These were military camps and settlements which served as administrative centres so long as the king was there. Thus coercion played an important part in the Satavahana administration. The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to brahmanas and Buddhist monks. The cultivated fields and villages granted to them were declared free from molestation by royal policemen and soldiers, and all kinds of royal officers. These areas therefore became small independent islands within the Satavahana kingdom. Possibly the Buddhist monks also preached peace and rules of good conduct among the people they lived with and taught them to respect political authority and social order. The brahmanas, of course, helped enforce the rules of the varna system which made society stable.

• The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of feudatories. The highest grade was formed by the king who was called raja and who had the right to strike coins. The second grade was formed by the mahabhoja, and the third grade by the senapati. It seems that these feudatories and landed beneficiaries enjoyed some authority in their respective localities.

• The Satavahana polity was extensively decentralized, with local administration largely left to feudatories under the general control of royal officials.
• The king was at the apex of the administrative hierarchy, while feudatories were classified into three grades: Rajas, Mahanhojas, and Maharathis.
• The state was divided into administrative divisions called aharas, each governed by a minister called Amatya.
• Trade was a critical component of the Satavahana economy, with key trading outposts like Sopara and Bharuch.

Social Organisation

• The Satavahanas originally seem to have been a tribe of the Deccan. But they were brahmanized, and their most famous king, Gautamiputra Satakarni, claims to have established the four-fold varna system which had fallen into disorder. He boasts that he put an end to the intermixture between the people of different social orders. Such a confusion was obviously caused by the Saka infiltration and by the thin and superficial brahmanization of the tribes living in the Deccan.

• Gautamiputra claims to have established the four-fold varna system. The absorption of the Sakas in Hindu society as kshatriyas was facilitated by intermarriage between the Sakas and the Satavahanas. Similarly, the indigenous tribal people were more and more acculturated by the Buddhist monks, who were induced by land grants to settle in the western Deccan. It is suggested that traders also supported the Buddhist monks, for the earliest caves seem to have been located on the trade routes. The Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make land grants to the brahmanas, although we have more instances of grants being made to Buddhist monks.

• The absorption of the Sakas in Hindu societyAccording to the Dharmasastras, it was the function of the kshatriyas to rule, but the Satavahana rulers called themselves brahmanas. Gautamiputra boasts that he was the true brahmana. Since the Andhras are identified with the early Satavahanas, probably they were a local tribe who were converted to brahmanism. The orthodox brahmanas of the north looked upon the Andhras as a mixed caste. This shows that the Andhras were a tribal people who were brought within the fold of Hindu society as a mixed caste.

• Traders also supported the Buddhist monks. Increasing craft and commerce in this period brought many merchants and artisans to the forefront. Merchants took pride in naming themselves after the towns to which they belonged. Both artisans and merchants made generous donations to the Buddhist cause. They set up small memorial tablets. Among the artisans, the gandhikas or the perfumers are repeatedly mentioned as donors. At a later stage, the term gandhika became so general as to denote all kinds of shopkeepers. The modern title Gandhi is derived from this ancient term.

• The most interesting detail about the Satavahanas relates to their family structure. In Aryan society in north India, the father enjoyed greater importance than the mother, and the princes whom we have considered so far seem to have belonged to a patriarchal society. But the Satavahanas show traces of a matrilineal social structure. It was customary for their king to be named after his mother. Such names as Gautamiputra and Vasisthiputra indicate that in their society, the mother enjoyed a great deal of importance. At present in peninsular India, the son’s name includes a part of the father’s name, but in it, there is no place for the mother. Queens made important religious gifts in their own right, and some of them acted as regents. But basically, the Satavahana ruling family was patriarchal because succession to the throne passed to the male member.

Economy

• The Satavahanas participated in economic expansion through intensification of agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.
• Large settlements emerged in fertile areas, and the amount of land under agricultural use expanded significantly due to forest clearance and irrigation reservoir construction.
• They dominated Indian trade with the Roman Empire, controlling the Indian sea coast.

Culture and Religion

• The Satavahana rulers claim to have been brahmanas, and they represented the march of triumphant brahmanism. From the very beginning, kings and queens performed the Vedic sacrifices such as the asvamedha, vajapeya, etc. They also worshipped a large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva, and others. They paid liberal sacrificial fees to the brahmanas.

• However, the Satavahana rulers promoted Buddhism by granting land to the monks. In their kingdom, the Mahayana form of Buddhism commanded considerable following among the people. The Satavahana kings and queens made extensive grants to Buddhist monasteries. Nagaijunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became important centres of Mahayana Buddhism. The monasteries at these places were lavishly endowed by the Satavahana rulers and the wealthy merchants. Buddhism flourished in the Nasik and Junar areas of Maharashtra also.

• The Satavahanas made significant contributions towards Indian culture, giving royal grants of land to practitioners of Buddhism and Brahmanism.
• They are credited with reviving Vedic Brahmanism and supporting various rituals and practices associated with it.
• The Satavahana society's naming practices suggest a unique approach, with emperors often deriving their names from the female lineage.
• Sculptures and inscriptions indicate a relatively elevated status of women, with evidence of their participation in various social and religious activities.

Aspects of Material Culture

• The material culture of the Deccan under the Satavahanas was a fusion of local elements and northern ingredients. The megalith builders of the Deccan were fairly acquainted with the use of iron and agriculture. Although before circa 200 B.C., we find some hoes made of iron, the number of such tools increased substantially in the first two or three centuries of the Christian era. We do not notice much change in the form of the hoes from the megalithic to the Satavahana phase. Only hoes were now fully and properly socketed.
• Besides socketed hoes, sickles, spades, ploughshares, axes, adzes, razors, etc., belong to the Satavahana layers. Tanged and socketed arrowheads, as well as daggers, have also been discovered. At a site in Karimnagar district, even a blacksmith’s shop has been discovered.
• The Satavahanas may have exploited the iron ores of Karimnagar and Warangal, as indications of iron workings as early as the megalithic phase have been found in these districts.
• Evidence of ancient gold workings has been found in the Kolar fields in the early Christian centuries.
• The Satavahanas may have used gold as bullion, for they did not issue gold coins as the Kushans did. They issued mostly coins of lead, which is found in the Deccan. They also issued potin, copper, and bronze money. The Ikshvakus also issued their coins. Both the Satavahanas and Ikshvakus seem to have exploited the mineral resources of the Deccan.
• The people of the Deccan knew the art of paddy transplantation, and in the first two centuries, the area between the Krishna and the Godavari, especially at the mouths of the two rivers, formed a great rice bowl. The people of the Deccan also produced cotton. In the foreign accounts, Andhra is considered to be famous for its cotton products. Thus, a good portion of the Deccan developed a very advanced rural economy.
• According to Pliny, the Andhra kingdom maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants. Apparently, the peasants produced enough to support this military strength. Through contacts with the north, the people of the Deccan learned the use of coins, burnt bricks, ringwells, etc. These elements of material life had become quite important in north India by 300 B.C., but they acquired importance in the Deccan a couple of centuries later.
• In Peddabankur (200 B.C. - A.D. 200) in Karimnagar district, we find regular use of fire-baked bricks and use of flat, perforated roof tiles. All this must have contributed to lasting structures. What is further remarkable is the fact that as many as 22 brick wells belonging to the second century A.D. have been discovered at that site. Naturally, these facilitated thick habitations, and we find there covered drains underground to lead waste water into soakage pits. Towns appeared in Maharashtra by the first century B.C., when we find several crafts. They emerged in the eastern Deccan a century later. Pliny informs us that the Andhra country in the eastern Deccan included 30 walled towns, besides numerous villages. Several towns of the second and third centuries in this area are known from inscriptions and excavations. Increasing trade is indicated by numerous Roman and Satavahana coins. They appeared about a century later in the eastern Deccan, in the Godavari-Krishna area.

Language

• The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit, which was used for inscriptions and official documents. One Prakrit text called Gathasaptasati, written by Hala, a Satavahana king, has survived to the present day. It is a collection of poems on love and other themes.

• Most Satavahana inscriptions and coin legends are in a Middle Indo-Aryan language, sometimes termed "Prakrit" by scholars.
• Sanskrit was also used in political inscriptions, though sparingly.
• Bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo-Aryan language on one side and Tamil language on the other were issued.

Coinage

• The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers.
• Thousands of lead and copper Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region, along with a few gold and silver coins.

Architecture

• The Satavahanas were great builders. Many temples and monasteries were cut out of the solid rock. These rock-cut caves were used for a variety of purposes. They served as places of worship, as residences for monks, and as places of assembly. The earliest caves at Nasik belong to the Satavahana period.

• The most famous chaitya is that of Karle near Pune. This chaitya is 148 feet deep and has a stupa at the far end. The facade of this cave is elaborately carved with a large horseshoe-shaped arch. The chaitya hall is flanked by pillars, and the interior is decorated with sculptures of Buddha, bodhisattvas, and other figures.

• The viharas or monasteries at Ajanta and Ellora were also built during the Satavahana period. These viharas consist of a central hall surrounded by cells for the monks. The walls of the viharas are decorated with paintings depicting scenes from the life of Buddha and other Buddhist themes.

• Rock-cut architecture reached its zenith in Andhra in the Krishna-Godavari region. The stupa was a large round structure, usually surmounted by a parasol. The stupa at Amaravati is one of the finest examples of Satavahana architecture. It is adorned with intricate carvings depicting scenes from the life of Buddha and other Buddhist motifs.

• The Amaravati stupa was originally built by the Satavahana kings but was later renovated and expanded by the Ikshvaku and Pallava kings. The stupa at Nagarjunakonda is another important example of Satavahana architecture. It is surrounded by a circular railing and has elaborate carvings on its base.

• Nagarjunakonda prospered most under the Ikshvakus, who succeeded the Satavahanas in Andhra. They built several Buddhist monasteries and stupas in the region.

• The sculptures of the Amaravati Stupa represent the architectural development of the Satavahana periods.
• They built Buddhist stupas in Amravati and several other locations, and patronized caves containing Ajanta paintings.
• Notable monuments include the Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa.

Paintings

• Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens in India, found only at the Ajanta Caves.
• While many have been lost due to natural factors and vandalism, fragments survive in caves containing chaitya-grihas with stupas.

Legacy

• The Satavahanas left a rich legacy, reviving Vedic Brahmanism and supporting various rituals and practices associated with it.
• They played a crucial role in the history of the Deccan region and Bharatavarsha, assimilating diverse faiths and demonstrating military and trading prowess.