The tradition of bronze sculptures in India highlights exquisite craftsmanship through Chola bronzes, Buddhist metal art, and the lost-wax casting technique.

Mastery in Bronze Sculpture Making

• Mastery in Bronze Sculpture:
  • Indian sculptors had mastered the bronze medium and casting processes, along with terracotta sculpture and stone carving.
  • The cire-perdu or ‘lost-wax’ process was known since the Indus Valley Civilization.
  • The process of making bronze (an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin) was also discovered during this time.

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• Bronze Sculptures of Religious Icons:
  • Bronze sculptures of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain icons dating from the second to sixteenth centuries have been discovered.
  • These sculptures were primarily used for ritual worship, marked by exquisite beauty and aesthetic appeal.
  • Metal casting was also used to create daily-use articles such as utensils.
  • Even today, tribal communities utilize the lost-wax process for their art.

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• Early Bronze Sculptures:
  • The ‘Dancing Girl’ from Mohenjodaro, dating to 2500 BCE, is among the earliest known bronze sculptures.
  • Bronze statuettes from Daimabad (1500 BCE) include a significant representation of a ‘Chariot’, showcasing simple circular wheels and sturdy bulls.
• Jain Bronzes:
  • Jain bronzes from Chausa, Bihar (Kushana Period, second century CE) show mastery in modelling masculine physiques.
  • The Adinath sculpture is notable for its long hairlocks dropping to the shoulders, while other tirthankaras feature short curly hair.
  • Gujarat and Rajasthan have been Jain strongholds, with bronzes such as those from Akota (fifth to seventh centuries CE), inlaid with silver and copper for detailing.
  • Bronzes from Hansi (Haryana) and Tamil Nadu/Karnataka are preserved in various museums across India.
• Bronzes of Western India:
  • The Akota hoard (Vadodara) confirms that bronze casting was practised in western India between the sixth and ninth centuries.
  • Images of Jain tirthankaras like Mahavira, Parshvanath, and Adinath were crafted, often seated on thrones singly or in groups.
  • Female representations, such as yakshinis like Chakreshvari and Ambika, were also cast.
  • The stylistic influence of the Gupta and Vakataka periods is evident in these bronzes.
• Buddha Images:
  • Many standing Buddha images with the abhaya mudra were cast in North India (fifth to seventh centuries).
  • The sanghati or monk’s robe drapes subtly over the body, emphasizing the refinement and youthful proportions of the figures.
  • Typical bronze styles:
    • Mathura style: Drapery folds form drooping curves.
    • Sarnath style: Foldless drapery, as seen in the monumental Buddha image from Sultanganj, Bihar.
  • The bronzes reflect a classical quality, marked by their subtle modelling and delicate treatment of the torso.

Lost Wax technique

• The Lost-wax Process:
  • The lost-wax process is a traditional technique used for creating metal objects, popular in regions like Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal.
  • Each region employs a slightly different variation of the technique.

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• Steps in the Lost-wax Process:
  • Creating the Wax Model:
    • A wax model is made by hand using pure beeswax.
    • The beeswax is melted over an open fire, strained through a fine cloth, and solidified in cold water.
    • It is then pressed through a pichki or pharni, forming noodle-like wax wires.
    • These wax wires are wound into the shape of the image.
  • Covering the Wax Model:
    • The wax model is coated with a thick paste made of clay, sand, and cow-dung in equal parts.
    • A clay pot is fixed to one side of the model, into which molten metal will be poured.
  • Metal Pouring and Firing:
    • The weight of the metal used is ten times that of the wax, which is weighed before starting the process.
    • Molten metal, usually scrap metal from broken pots and pans, is poured into the clay pot.
    • The clay-plastered model is then exposed to firing, melting the wax and allowing the metal to flow into the mold.
    • The firing is conducted as a religious ritual, with all steps performed in complete silence.

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  • Final Finishing:
    • The cast image is chiselled and smoothed using files to provide a polished finish.
• Materials and Skill:
  • Creating bronze images requires painstaking effort and a high degree of skill.
  • An alloy of five metals — gold, silver, copper, brass, and lead — is sometimes used for casting.

Bronze casting techniques in different regions

• Vakataka Bronze Images:
  • Vakataka bronze images of the Buddha from Phophnar, Maharashtra, date back to the Gupta period.
  • These images display the influence of the Amaravati style of Andhra Pradesh from the third century CE.
  • Key features of the images include:
    • A unique draping style where the monk’s robe clings to the right side of the body contour.
    • Buddha’s right hand is in the abhaya mudra, creating a flowing line on the figure's right side.
    • The drapery makes a curvilinear turn at the ankles, held by the left hand.
  • These bronzes were portable and carried by monks for individual worship or installation in Buddhist viharas.
  • Their portability helped spread the refined classical style to different parts of India and overseas Asian countries.
• Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir Bronzes:

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  • These regions produced bronze images of Buddhist deities as well as Hindu gods and goddesses during the eighth to tenth centuries.
  • They have a distinct style compared to other Indian bronzes, featuring:
    • Iconography of Vishnu, including Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu, with:
      • Central face as Vasudeva.
      • Other faces representing Narasimha and Varaha.
    • Dynamic depictions such as:
      • Narasimha avatar.
      • Mahishasuramardini Durga.

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• Buddhist Bronze Casting in Nalanda:
  • During the Pala Dynasty (ninth century), a bronze-casting school developed in the Bihar and Bengal regions.
  • Sculptors at Kurkihar near Nalanda revived the classical Gupta style, producing remarkable works like:
    • A four-armed Avalokitesvara in a tribhanga posture.
    • Images of Tara, seated on a throne with a lotus stalk and right hand in abhaya mudra.
  • The growth of Vajrayana Buddhism led to increased worship of female goddesses.
• Bronze Casting in South India:

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  • Bronze casting reached its peak during the medieval period in South India.
  • While bronze images were created during the Pallava Period (eighth-ninth centuries), the Chola Period (tenth-twelfth centuries) saw the production of the most exquisite bronzes.
  • Key highlights:
    • Techniques from the Chola Period are still practiced, especially in Kumbakonam.
    • The widowed Chola queen Sembiyan Maha Devi was a distinguished patron.

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    • Chola bronzes are highly sought after by art collectors worldwide.

Sculpture making in south India

• Pallava Period Bronzes:
  • The eighth-century icon of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka asana (one leg dangling) is a remarkable example.
  • In this bronze:
    • Shiva’s right hand is in achamana mudra, indicating he is about to drink poison.
• Chola Period Bronzes:

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  • The dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja was fully developed during this period and became an iconic representation.
  • A diverse range of Shiva iconography evolved in the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu, including:
    • Kalyanasundara Murti:
      • Depicts the Panigrahana ceremony (marriage ritual).
      • Shiva extends his right hand to accept Parvati’s, who is shown with a bashful expression, stepping forward.
    • Ardhanarisvara Murti: Ingeniously represents the union of Shiva and Parvati in a single figure.
    • Independent figurines of Parvati standing in the graceful tribhanga posture.
• Vijayanagar Period Bronzes:
  • During the sixteenth century, portrait sculpture flourished in Andhra Pradesh under the Vijayanagar Empire.
  • At Tirupati, life-size bronze portraits were cast, depicting:
    • King Krishnadevaraya with his two queens, Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi.
    • These portraits combined realistic facial features with elements of idealisation.
    • The physical forms were modelled to appear both imposing and graceful.
    • All three figures are shown in namaskara mudra, a praying posture.

Nataraja Sculpture

• Shiva as the Cosmic Dancer (Nataraja): Analysis and Symbolism
  • 1. Shiva's Role and Cosmic Significance
    • Shiva, as Nataraja, embodies the cosmic cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction.
    • The dancing position is a metaphor for the rhythm of the universe and the dissolution of ignorance.
  • 2. Symbolism of the Dance
    • Right leg: Balances on the demon apasmara, symbolizing suppression of ignorance and forgetfulness.
    • Left leg: Raised in the bhujangatrasita stance, signifying the act of removing the veil of maya (illusion) from the devotee's mind.
  • 3. Gesture and Iconography
    • Main right hand: In abhaya hasta, offering protection and fearlessness.
    • Upper right hand: Holds the damaru, representing the rhythm of creation and time.
    • Upper left hand: Carries a flame, symbolizing destruction and transformation.
    • Main left hand: In dola hasta, connecting with the abhaya hasta, signifying balance and harmony.
  • 4. Additional Elements
    • Jvala mala (garland of flames): Encircles Shiva, symbolizing the fiery cosmic energy.
    • Hair locks: Flying on both sides, emphasizing dynamic movement and spiritual energy.

Relevant Exercise and hints

• Exercise Questions and Relevant Insights:
  • 1. Do you think that the technique of bronze casting has been a continuous process? How did it evolve over a period of time?
    • Yes, the technique of bronze casting has been a continuous process in India. It evolved over time, showcasing regional variations and increasing sophistication:
      • During the Pallava Period, the art of casting was well-established, as seen in the Shiva icon in ardhaparyanka asana.
      • The Chola Period marked the pinnacle of bronze casting with highly refined and intricate sculptures like Nataraja.

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      • In the Vijayanagar Period, bronze casting expanded to include life-size portrait sculptures, blending realism and idealisation, as seen in the statues of Krishnadevaraya and his queens.
      • Techniques such as the lost-wax process were crucial in creating detailed and portable bronze figures, which were carried by monks or installed in temples.
  • 2. In India sculpturing in stone and metal happened simultaneously. In your opinion, what were the similarities and differences between both technically, stylistically, and functionally?
    • Similarities:
      • Both mediums were used to depict religious themes, such as deities and important figures.
      • They adhered to classical styles, as seen in Gupta and Vakataka bronzes and stone sculptures.
    • Differences:
      • Technically:
        • Bronze sculptures used the lost-wax process, allowing for intricate detailing and portability.
        • Stone sculptures required carving, which was labor-intensive and limited by the stone's natural properties.
      • Stylistically:
        • Bronzes, such as the Chola Nataraja, often depicted dynamic forms, while stone sculptures were more rigid but monumental.
      • Functionally:
        • Bronze figures were portable and used for individual worship, while stone sculptures were usually permanent installations in temples.
  • 3. Why are Chola bronze sculptures considered as the most refined?

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    • The Chola bronzes are celebrated for their unparalleled artistry due to:
      • Technical mastery: Sculptors achieved intricate details using advanced lost-wax casting.
      • Stylistic elegance: Figures like Nataraja and Ardhanarisvara showcase balanced proportions and fluidity in movement.
      • Patronage: The Chola rulers, including Sembiyan Maha Devi, supported and encouraged this art form.
  • 4. Search for visuals of bronze sculptures of the Buddha belonging to periods other than the Chola Period from Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, etc.
    • Visuals of Buddhist bronze sculptures from other regions include:
      • Vakataka Period: Bronze images from Phophnar, Maharashtra, reflecting influences of the Amaravati style.
      • Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir: Distinct bronze figures of Avalokitesvara and Tara, showcasing dynamic iconography like Chaturanana Vishnu.
      • Pala Dynasty: Examples include four-armed Avalokitesvara and Tara, reflecting the Vajrayana Buddhist tradition.