Explore the rich traditions of mural art in India, spanning across Vijayanagara, Kerala, Badami, Pallava, Pandya, and Chola periods, and their artistic legacy in temples and monuments.

• Mural paintings in India are three-dimensional artworks painted on the walls of caves and palaces.
• The existence of mural paintings in India dates back to the 2nd century BC to 8th-10th century AD.
• The pigments used in ancient Indian mural paintings were natural resources like terracotta, chalk, red ochre, and yellow ochre mixed with animal fat.
• Subjects include:
  • Human and animal figures
  • Hunting scenes
  • Family life
  • Courtly affairs
  • Buddhist ‘Jataka’ narratives

• Preservation of Ancient Paintings
  • After Ajanta, only a few sites with ancient paintings have survived. These sites provide valuable evidence to reconstruct the tradition of ancient paintings.
  • The tradition of painting in caves is an important part of India’s cultural heritage, offering insights into early artistic techniques and symbolism.
• Role of Sculptures in Ancient Art
  • Along with paintings, sculptures in caves were often plastered and painted, highlighting the dual artistic practices of ancient artisans.
  • Many sculptural traditions were integrated with painting, demonstrating the holistic approach to cave art in ancient India.
• Cave Excavations and Artistic Practices
  • The tradition of cave excavations continued at various sites, where sculpting and painting were done simultaneously, showcasing the evolution of Indian art.
  • These artistic practices were central to the development of religious and cultural expressions in ancient India.

Paintings of Badami

• Badami: Historical Significance
  • Badami is a prominent site located in the state of Karnataka, which served as the capital of the early Chalukyan dynasty.
  • The Chalukyas ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE, establishing their power in the Deccan following the decline of the Vakataka rule.
• Chalukya Dynasty and Mangalesha
  • Mangalesha, the younger son of Pulakesi I and brother of Kirtivarman I, patronized the excavation of the Badami caves.
  • The inscription in Cave No.4 mentions the date 578–579 CE and includes a dedication to the image of Vishnu, associating the cave with Vaishnavism.
• Vishnu Cave
  • The cave, known as the Vishnu Cave, is famous for its paintings, especially a fragment on the vaulted roof of the front mandapa.
  • Paintings in the cave depict scenes of a palace with figures of Kirtivarman, his wife, feudatories, and Indra and his retinue.
• Artistic Style and Mural Traditions

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  • Stylistically, the paintings in Badami reflect an extension of the mural painting tradition from Ajanta to South India, showcasing the evolution of mural art.
  • The sinuous lines, fluid forms, and compact compositions highlight the artistic proficiency achieved by the sixth-century artists.
  • The faces of the king and queen in the paintings are reminiscent of the Ajanta style, with large eye sockets, half-closed eyes, and protruding lips, creating a sense of volume through simple line treatment.

Murals under the Pallava, Pandya, and Chola Kings

• Murals under the Pallava, Pandya, and Chola Kings
  • The tradition of painting continued in Tamil Nadu under the rule of the Pallava, Pandya, and Chola dynasties, with each adding regional variations.
  • Pallava kings, who succeeded the Chalukya kings in parts of South India, were also notable patrons of arts and architecture.

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• Pallava Dynasty and Mahendravarman I
  • Mahendravarman I, a seventh-century ruler, was responsible for building temples at Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and Kanchipuram.
  • Inscription at Mandagapattu mentions his numerous titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded) and Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), highlighting his patronage of art.
  • Paintings in these temples were done under his initiative, though only fragments remain today.
• Art Under Rajsimha and the Pallava Kings
  • Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the Pallava king Rajsimha, with traces of Somaskanda depicted in the murals.
  • The faces in these paintings are round and large, with rhythmic lines and increased ornamentation compared to earlier periods.
  • The torso depiction remains similar to earlier sculptural traditions, but it is more elongated in style.
• Art Under the Pandya Kings
  • The Pandyas also patronised art, with surviving examples found in the Tirumalaipuram caves and Sittanvasal.
  • Paintings in Sittanvasal are visible on the ceilings of shrines, verandas, and pillars, depicting celestial nymphs and dancers.

    

  • The figures are drawn in firm contours and painted in vermilion red, with yellow body rendering and subtle modelling.
  • The depiction of dancers with expressive faces and rhythmic movement shows the artists’ skill in visualizing forms within an architectural context.

    

• Chola Dynasty and the Brihadeswara Temple
  • The Chola kings continued the tradition of building temples and embellishing them with carvings and paintings.
  • During the eleventh century, the Cholas reached the zenith of their power, with masterpieces of art and architecture emerging, particularly in the Brihadeswara temple at Thanjavur.
  • Paintings in the Brihadeswara temple depict Lord Shiva in various forms, including Shiva as Nataraja and Tripurantaka, as well as portraits of the patron Rajaraja Chola and his mentor Kuruvar.
  • The discovery of two layers of paintings—one from the Nayak period and the other from the Chola period—revealed the rich Chola art tradition.

Vijayanagara Murals

• Vijayanagara Murals

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  • The paintings of Brihadeswara temple exemplify the stylistic maturity the artists evolved over the years. Sinuous pre-determined flow of lines, supple modelling of figures, and elongation of the physiognomic features of human figures represent the perfection achieved by the Chola artist and mark a phase of transition.
  • With the decline of the Chola dynasty in the thirteenth century, the Vijayanagara Dynasty (fourteenth-sixteenth centuries) captured and brought under its control the region from Hampi to Trichy, with Hampi serving as its capital.
  • Many paintings survive in various temples from the Vijayanagara period, such as in Tiruparakunram, near Trichy, and in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi. These paintings represent the early phase of the Vijayanagara style.
• Paintings in Hampi
  • The Virupaksha temple in Hampi contains paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa, narrating events from dynastic history, as well as episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
  • Among the important panels are depictions of Vidyaranya, the spiritual teacher of Bukkaraya Harsha, being carried in a palanquin, and the incarnations of Vishnu. The faces of the figures are shown in profile, with large frontal eyes, and the figures are depicted with narrow waists.
• Paintings in Lepakshi
  • In Lepakshi, near Hindupur in present-day Andhra Pradesh, there are glorious examples of Vijayanagara paintings on the walls of the Shiva temple.
  • The Vijayanagara painters evolved a pictorial language where faces are shown in profile and figures and objects in two dimensions. Lines are fluid yet still, and compositions appear in rectilinear compartments.
• Stylistic Conventions in Vijayanagara Paintings
  • The stylistic conventions of the preceding centuries were adopted by artists in various centers in South India, as seen in the paintings of the Nayaka Period. These include the use of profile faces and two-dimensional figures and objects.
  • The figures in the paintings have slim waists, and compositions reflect stillness with a fluidity in line work.

    

• Nayaka Paintings
  • Paintings of the Nayaka dynasty, seen in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, are found in places like Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam, Tiruvarur, and Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu.
  • In Thiruparakunram, paintings from two different periods (fourteenth and seventeenth centuries) are present, with early paintings depicting scenes from the life of Vardhaman Mahavira.
  • Nayaka paintings depict episodes from the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and scenes from Krishna-leela. In Tiruvarur, there is a panel narrating the story of Muchukunda, while in Chidambaram, paintings depict stories related to Shiva and Vishnu, such as Shiva as Bhikshatana Murti and Vishnu as Mohini.
  • In the Sri Krishna temple at Chengam, there are 60 panels narrating the story of the Ramayana, which represents the late phase of Nayaka paintings.
• Differences in Nayaka Paintings
  • The Nayaka paintings are seen as an extension of the Vijayanagara style with minor regional modifications and incorporations.
  • The figures, mostly in profile, are set against a flat background. Male figures are depicted with slimmer waists and less heavy abdomens compared to those in the Vijayanagara period.
  • The artist continues to infuse movement into the paintings, creating dynamic spaces, as seen in the painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli.

Kerala Murals

• Kerala Murals
  • Kerala painters, during the period from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, developed a unique pictorial language and technique while adopting stylistic elements from the Nayaka and Vijayanagara schools. They evolved their own style, influenced by contemporary traditions such as Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu.
  • The paintings of Kerala are known for their vibrant and luminous colors, with human figures often represented in three-dimensionality. Most of these paintings are found on the walls of shrines, cloister walls of temples, and some inside palaces.
• Thematic Focus of Kerala Murals
  • Thematically, Kerala murals stand apart as they mostly depict episodes from Hindu mythology that were particularly popular in Kerala. These themes were often drawn from oral traditions and local versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

    

• Notable Sites of Kerala Murals
  • Over sixty sites in Kerala are known to have mural paintings, including three palaces: the Dutch Palace in Kochi, the Krishnapuram Palace in Kayamkulam, and the Padmanabhapuram Palace.
  • Some of the most prominent sites where one can observe the mature phase of Kerala’s mural painting tradition include Pundareekapuram Krishna Temple, Panayanarkavu, Thirukodithanam, Triprayar Sri Rama Temple, and the Vadakkunathan Temple in Thrissur.
• Kerala's Ritual Floor Paintings
  • The ritual floor paintings of Kerala, such as the depiction of Krishna playing the flute accompanied by Gopikas at the Krishna Temple in Pundareekapuram, are examples of the distinctive Kerala mural style, marked by vibrant colors and intricate designs.
• Influence of Local and Folk Traditions
  • The artist's narrative sources were influenced by local versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as oral traditions unique to Kerala.

    

• Continued Tradition of Mural Painting
  • Even today, mural painting continues in various regions of India. This tradition includes forms such as Pithoro in Rajasthan and Gujarat, Mithila painting in Bihar, Warli paintings in Maharashtra, and other regional wall paintings in Odisha, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.
  • In Kerala, mural paintings are still seen on both the interior and exterior walls of houses in villages, often created by women during ceremonies or festivals, or as part of routine decoration and cleaning.