Dive into the rich traditions of Indian temple architecture and sculpture, from the Nagara and Dravidian styles to Vesara innovations, featuring iconic structures like Khajuraho, Konark, and Brihadeshwara.

• Art and Architectural Remains
  • Most of the art and architectural remains from Ancient and Medieval India are religious in nature.
  • Domestic dwellings and objects made from wood and clay have perished over time.
  • This chapter focuses on various types of temples in India, primarily Hindu temples, along with Buddhist and Jain temples.
  • Religious shrines were also made for local cults in villages and forests, but due to the use of non-durable materials, these have mostly vanished.
• Early Temples
  • Construction of stupas continued alongside the creation of Brahmanical temples and images of gods.
  • Temples were often decorated with images of gods and narratives from myths mentioned in the Puranas.
  • Each temple featured a principal image of a god.
  • Types of temple shrines:
    • Sandhara: Without pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path).
    • Nirandhara: With pradakshinapatha.
    • Sarvatobhadra: Accessible from all sides.
  • Notable temple sites from this period:
    • Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh
    • Eran, Nachna-Kuthara, and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh

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  • These temples were simple structures, consisting of:
    • A veranda
    • A hall
    • A shrine at the rear
• Architectural Elements
  • Key features of these temples include:
    • Kalasha
    • Amalaka
    • Garbhagriha
    • Pitha
    • Shikhara
  • The temples follow the Nagara style of architecture.

Basic Form of Hindu Temple

• Basic Form of the Hindu Temple
  • The basic form of a Hindu temple comprises the following elements:
    • Sanctum (Garbhagriha):
      • Literally means "womb-house."
      • A small cubicle with a single entrance, which evolved into a larger chamber over time.
      • Houses the main icon, the focus of ritual attention.
    • Mandapa:
      • The entrance to the temple.
      • May be a portico or colonnaded hall to accommodate large numbers of worshippers.
    • Mountain-like Spire:
      • In North India: Known as a curving shikhar.
      • In South India: Known as a pyramidal tower, or vimana.
    • Vahan (Mount or Vehicle):
      • The mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity.
      • Accompanied by a standard pillar or dhvaj, placed axially before the sanctum.
  • Temple Orders in India
    • Nagara: Predominantly in North India.
    • Dravida: Predominantly in South India.
    • Vesar: An independent style created by selectively mixing the Nagara and Dravida styles (as mentioned by some scholars).
  • Architectural Evolution
    • Temples became more complex with time.
    • Used additive geometry to create more surfaces for sculpture by adding rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls and niches.
    • This was done without deviating from the fundamental plan of the shrine.

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Sculpture and Ornamentation

• Sculpture, Iconography, and Ornamentation
  • Iconography:
    • The study of images of deities through their identification based on symbols and mythologies.
    • While the fundamental myth and meaning of a deity may remain unchanged over centuries, its specific usage can vary based on local social, political, or geographical contexts.
  • Regional and Periodic Styles:
    • Each region and period produced a distinct style of images with variations in iconography.
  • Temple Sculpture and Ornamentation:
    • The temple structure is adorned with elaborate sculpture and ornamentation that are fundamental to its design.
    • The placement of images is carefully planned:
      • River Goddesses (e.g., Ganga and Yamuna): Typically found at the entrance of the garbhagriha in Nagara temples.
      • Dvarapalas (Doorkeepers): Placed on gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples.
      • Mithunas (Erotic images), Navagrahas (Nine auspicious planets), and Yakshas: Positioned at entrances to serve as guardians.
      • Ashtadikpalas (Deities of directions): Face the eight key directions on the outer walls of the sanctum or the temple.
      • Subsidiary Shrines: Dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity and placed around the main temple.
  • Elements of Ornamentation:
    • Distinct decorative elements include:
      • Gavaksha: A horseshoe-shaped window motif.
      • Vyala/Yali: Mythical creatures often used as brackets or embellishments.
      • Kalpa-lata: A decorative creeper motif.
      • Amalaka: A segmented, fluted stone disc atop the shikhara.
      • Kalasha: A symbolic pitcher placed at the temple's pinnacle.

The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

• The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style
  • Overview of the Nagara Style:
    • The nagara style became a defining feature of North Indian temple architecture.
    • Key characteristics:
      • Temples are usually built on a raised stone platform, accessed by steps.
      • Unlike South Indian temples, they typically lack elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
    • The garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) is always positioned directly under the tallest shikhara (tower).

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  • Key Features of Nagara Architecture:
    • The style allows for flexibility, leading to regional and artistic variations.
    • Distinctive features:
      • Temples often incorporate intricate carvings and ornate sculptures.
      • The overall structure symbolizes the spiritual journey from the earthly realm to the divine.
  • Subdivisions of Nagara Temples:
    • Latina (Rekha-Prasada):
      • The simplest and most common form of shikhara.
      • Features:
        • A square base with walls that curve inward, ending in a point at the top.
        • Known for its elegant, soaring vertical lines.
    • Phamsana:
      • Shorter and broader compared to latina temples.
      • Features:
        • The roofs are composed of gently sloping slabs that rise to a single point at the center.
        • Used frequently for mandapas, while the main garbhagriha features a latina-style shikhara.
    • Valabhi:
      • A unique type of rectangular structure.
      • Features:
        • A vaulted roof resembling a wagon-vaulted chamber.
        • Inspired by earlier architectural forms like Buddhist chaitya halls.
        • The roof is rounded at the edges, similar to ancient bamboo or wooden wagons.
  • Evolution of Nagara Architecture:
    • Initially, temples had a single towering shikhara.
    • Over time, these structures evolved into complex designs:
      • Multiple smaller towers clustered around the main shikhara, resembling rising mountain peaks.
      • The tallest tower was always positioned above the garbhagriha, emphasizing its spiritual significance.
  • Historical Influences on Nagara Temples:
    • The design elements were inspired by ancient architectural forms:
      • Chaitya halls of Buddhist rock-cut architecture, characterized by long halls and curved, wagon-vaulted roofs.
      • Traditional wooden and bamboo structures also influenced the valabhi design.
    • The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh (fifth century CE) is an early example showcasing nagara architectural principles.

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Central Indian Temple Architecture

• Central India Temple Architecture
  • Introduction
    • The ancient temples of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan share common architectural traits, primarily made of sandstone.
    • Some of the oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta Period are in Madhya Pradesh, with a modest and simple design.
    • These early temples often have four pillars supporting a small mandapa, which is a porch-like extension before a small garbhagriha (sanctum).
  • Key Examples of Early Temples
    • Udaigiri Temple
      • Located in Vidisha, this temple is part of a larger Hindu cave shrine complex.
      • Notable for its simple design with a small garbhagriha and flat roof, indicating the evolving temple architecture of the time.
    • Sanchi Temple
      • Near the famous stupa at Sanchi, this is one of the earliest temples with a flat roof.
      • The flat roof marks a significant architectural development shared by both Hindu and Buddhist religious structures during the period.
    • Deogarh Temple (Early 6th Century CE)
      • Built about a hundred years after the Sanchi and Udaigiri temples, the Deogarh temple is a prime example of late Gupta temple architecture.
      • This temple follows the panchayatana style, where the main shrine is surrounded by four smaller shrines.
      • The temple features a curvilinear shikhara, typical of the nagara style, solidifying its place in the early nagara tradition.
      • Reliefs in the temple depict Vishnu in various forms such as Sheshashayana, Nara-Narayan, and Gajendramoksha.
      • The west-facing temple is unusual, as most temples are east- or north-facing.
      • The four subsidiary shrines are thought to have been dedicated to Vishnu’s avatars, though their exact purpose remains uncertain.

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  • Khajuraho Temples: Evolution of the Nagara Style
    • Introduction to Khajuraho

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      • Located in Madhya Pradesh, Khajuraho features temples from the Chandela dynasty, built around the 10th century.
      • Khajuraho’s temples are highly renowned for their architectural complexity and sculptural richness.
      • The temples at Khajuraho are primarily devoted to Hindu gods, with some Jain temples also present.
    • Lakshmana Temple (954 CE)
      • Dedicated to Vishnu, the Lakshmana Temple is a quintessential example of the nagara style developed by the Chandela kings.

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      • The temple is elevated on a high platform, accessible via stairs.
      • It has four smaller temples at the corners, each with a high shikhara rising in a curved pyramidal fashion, characteristic of nagara architecture.
      • The temple's crowning elements include an amalak (fluted disc) and kalash (vase), common in all nagara temples of the period.
      • The temple's design also includes projecting balconies and verandahs, setting it apart from earlier structures like Deogarh.
    • Kandariya Mahadeo Temple

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      • The Kandariya Mahadeo Temple is a grand representation of the medieval period's temple architecture in Central India.
      • Known for its massive structure, the temple includes both architectural grandeur and intricate sculptures.
      • It exemplifies the zenith of the nagara style with towering shikharas and ornate carvings that decorate the entire temple complex.
      • The temple is famous for its erotic sculptures, which emphasize the integration of sensual and spiritual experiences as part of a cosmic whole.
  • Tantric Influence and Yogini Temples
    • Chausanth Yogini Temple
      • This temple is dedicated to Tantric worship and features small, square shrines built from rough-hewn granite blocks.
      • The shrines are associated with devis (goddesses), showcasing the rise of Tantric worship between the 7th and 10th centuries.
      • The Chausanth Yogini Temple predates the 10th century and is one of the few surviving temples from this cult.
    • Spread of Yogini Temples
      • These temples were built across Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and even as far south as Tamil Nadu.
      • They were typically constructed between the 7th and 10th centuries, during a period of growing influence of Tantric practices.

Temple in North-western India

• Temples in North-Western India
  • Regions and Materials Used
    • The temples in the north-western parts of India, including Gujarat, Rajasthan, and extending to western Madhya Pradesh, are too numerous to cover comprehensively.
    • The stone used to build these temples ranges in color and type.
      • Sandstone is the most common material used in temple construction.
      • Grey to black basalt can be seen in some tenth to twelfth century sculptures.
      • Soft white marble is also seen in some Jain temples from the tenth to twelfth centuries, especially in Mount Abu and the fifteenth-century temple at Ranakpur.
  • Samlaji, Gujarat
    • Samlaji is one of the most important art-historical sites in the region, showing how earlier artistic traditions mixed with post-Gupta styles to give rise to a distinct style of sculpture.
    • A large number of sculptures made from grey schist have been found in this region, dating back to the sixth and eighth centuries CE.
    • The patronage of these sculptures is debated, but the date is established based on the style of the art.
  • Sun Temple at Modhera
    • The Sun Temple at Modhera was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026 CE during the early eleventh century.

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    • The temple features a massive rectangular stepped tank called the Surya Kund in front of it.
    • The proximity of sacred architecture to water bodies such as tanks, rivers, or ponds has been a common feature of temples from early times. This temple is no exception.
    • The Surya Kund is a grand hundred-square-meter rectangular pond, possibly the grandest temple tank in India, with 108 miniature shrines carved into the steps inside the tank.
    • A large ornamental arch-torana leads to the Sabha Mandapa (assembly hall), which is open on all sides, as was the custom in western and central Indian temples of the time.
    • The influence of woodcarving tradition of Gujarat is evident in the lavish carvings and sculptures found in the temple.
    • The walls of the central small shrine are left plain and devoid of carvings, as the temple faces the east, and every year, at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into this central shrine.

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Eastern Indian Temples and Sculpture:

• Eastern Indian Temples and Sculpture:
  • 1. North-East and Bengal Temples:
    • The history of architecture in the North-East and Bengal is challenging to study due to numerous renovations, leaving only later brick or concrete temples in many sites.
    • In Bengal, terracotta was the primary medium for temple construction and for moulding plaques depicting Buddhist and Hindu deities up until the seventh century.
    • Many ancient sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal, reflecting the development of important regional schools in these areas.
  • 2. Assam:
    • The region shows influence from the Gupta idiom, especially in the sixth-century sculpted door frame found in DaParvatia near Tezpur. Other sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate in Assam also reflect this.

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    • The post-Gupta style persisted in Assam well into the tenth century. By the twelfth to fourteenth centuries, Assam developed a distinct regional style influenced by the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma.
    • The Ahom style, a mix of Pala and local traditions, emerged in and around Guwahati during this time.
    • The Kamakhya Temple in Assam, dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya, was constructed in the seventeenth century and remains a prominent example of Shakti Peeths.
  • 3. Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar:
    • The Pala style of sculpture, prevalent between the ninth and eleventh centuries, is named after the ruling dynasty of the time.
    • From the mid-eleventh to mid-thirteenth centuries, the Sena style emerged.
    • The Siddheshvara Temple in Assam is an example of the early Pala style, similar to contemporaneous Odisha temples with its tall curving shikhara.
    • The region's temples exhibit awareness of nagara subtypes, with many temples built in the ninth to twelfth centuries around Telkupi in Purulia District. These temples were submerged due to dam constructions.
    • The early Bengal Sultanate architecture was heavily influenced by the region’s black basalt and chlorite stone pillars, and arched niches.
    • Terracotta temples built during the Mughal period, especially around Vishnupur, Bankura, Burdwan, and Birbhum, combined local Bengali construction techniques, Pala forms, and Islamic architecture elements like arches and domes.

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  • 4. Odisha:
    • Odisha temples are known for three distinct architectural orders: rekhapida, pidhadeul, and khakra.
    • Most Odisha temples are located in ancient Kalinga (modern Puri District), which includes major sites like Bhubaneswar (Tribhuvanesvara), Puri, and Konark.

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    • The deul (shikhara) in Odisha temples is typically vertical but curves sharply inward at the top. Mandapas, or jagamohana, precede these temples.
    • The ground plan of the temples is usually square, transitioning to a circular mastaka (crowning spire).
    • Konark is home to the magnificent Sun Temple, built around 1240. Its colossal shikhara, originally reaching 70 meters in height, collapsed in the nineteenth century.
    • The Sun Temple features extensive and detailed carvings, including twelve pairs of enormous wheels representing the chariot of the Sun god. Sculptures of seven horses driving the chariot are located at the entrance staircase, and a massive green stone sculpture of Surya is carved on the southern wall.

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Temple Architecture in Hilly Areas

• The Hills:
  • A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal, and Kashmir.
  • Kashmir's proximity to prominent Gandhara sites (such as Taxila, Peshawar, and the northwest frontier) lent the region a strong Gandhara influence by the fifth century CE.
  • This influence began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that were brought from Sarnath, Mathura, and even centers in Gujarat and Bengal.
  • Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks frequently travelled between Kashmir, Garhwal, Kumaon, and religious centers in the plains like Banaras, Nalanda, and even as far south as Kanchipuram.
  • As a result, both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.

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  • The hills also had their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
  • At several places in the hills, the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or latina style, while the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture.
  • Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape.
  • The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.
  • One of the most important temples is Pandrethan, built during the eighth and ninth centuries.
  • In keeping with the tradition of a water tank attached to the shrine, this temple is built on a plinth in the middle of a tank.
  • Although there are evidences of both Hindu and Buddhist followings in Kashmir, this temple is a Hindu one, possibly dedicated to Shiva.
  • The architecture of this temple follows the age-old Kashmiri tradition of wooden buildings.
  • Due to the snowy conditions in Kashmir, the roof is peaked and slants slowly outward.
  • The temple is moderately ornamented, moving away from the post-Gupta aesthetics of heavy carving.
  • A row of elephants at the base and a decorated doorway are the only embellishments on the shrine.
  • Like the findings at Samlaji, the sculptures at Chamba also show an amalgamation of local traditions with a post-Gupta style.
  • The images of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at the Laksna-Devi Mandir are evidence of the influence of the post-Gupta tradition.
  • Both the images show the influence of the metal sculpture tradition of Kashmir.
  • The yellow color of the images is possibly due to an alloy of zinc and copper, which were popularly used to make images in Kashmir.
  • This temple bears an inscription stating that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman, who lived in the seventh century.
  • Temple complexes in the Hills:
  • Of the temples in Kumaon, the ones at Jageshwar near Almora, and Champavat near Pithoragarh, are classic examples of nagara architecture in the region.