This article explores the Post-Mauryan period's key contributions to Indian art and architecture, highlighting the transformation of sculpture and the rise of monumental structures like stupas, temples, and caves.

• Post-Mauryan Period (From the Second Century BCE)
  • After the decline of the vast Mauryan Empire, various rulers established control over different regions in India, including:
    • Northern and Central India: Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas.
    • Southern and Western India: Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and Vakataks.
  • The second century BCE also marked the emergence of significant Brahmanical sects, such as:
    • Vaishnavas: Devotees of Lord Vishnu.
    • Shaivas: Followers of Lord Shiva.
• Important Sites of the Second Century BCE
  • Numerous archaeological sites from this period are spread across India.
  • Some of the prominent examples showcasing the finest sculptures include:
    • Vidisha: Known for its exquisite sculptural art.
    • Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh): Features intricate carvings on stupa railings.
    • Bodhgaya (Bihar): A significant site in Buddhist history.
    • Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh): Home to stupas with elaborate carvings.
    • Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): A hub of early Indian sculptural art.
    • Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha): Famous for its rock-cut caves.
    • Bhaja (Near Pune, Maharashtra): Known for its Buddhist caves and sculptures.
    • Pavani (Near Nagpur, Maharashtra): Features remarkable early sculptures.

Bharhut Sculptures

• Bharhut Sculptures: Key Characteristics
  • Bharhut sculptures are tall and linear, resembling the images of Yaksha and Yakshinis from the Mauryan period.

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  • The sculptural volumes are modeled in low relief, with images adhering to the picture plane.
  • Relief panels use a tilted perspective to create the illusion of three-dimensionality, enhancing the clarity of narrative depictions.
  • Over time, these sculptures evolved:
    • Early narrative panels feature fewer characters focusing on main events.
    • Later panels include additional characters and occasionally club multiple events from one geographical location.
• Innovative Utilization of Space
  • The sculptors maximized the use of available space:
    • Hands in folded positions are shown flat against the chest.
    • Later sculptures depict natural projections of hands and limbs for a more realistic appearance.
  • Initial carvings were shallow, limiting realistic depictions, but gradually evolved into deep carvings with pronounced volume and naturalistic representations of human and animal forms.
• Examples of Bharhut Sculptures
  • Sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapeta demonstrate the evolution of Indian art during this period.
• Narrative Reliefs at Bharhut
  • Artisans skillfully used pictorial language to communicate stories, such as:
    • Queen Mayadevi’s Dream: Depicts a descending elephant symbolizing Siddhartha Gautam’s conception, with the queen reclining on a bed.

      

    • Ruru Jataka: Illustrates the Boddhisattva deer rescuing a man and the subsequent betrayal by the man who leads the king to the deer for a reward.
  • These Jataka stories became integral to stupa decorations, showcasing both moral lessons and artistic excellence.

    

• Regional and Stylistic Variations
  • With the rise of stupa constructions across India, regional stylistic variations emerged.
  • A consistent characteristic of male images from the first–second centuries BCE is the use of knotted headgear, evident in many sculptures.
• Bharhut Sculptures Today
  • Many sculptures from Bharhut are preserved and displayed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata.

Sanchi Stupa-1: Key Features and Sculptural Developments

• Sanchi Stupa-1: Key Features and Sculptural Developments

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  • The sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1, Mathura, and Vengi (in Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh) marks a significant phase in stylistic progression.
  • Sanchi Stupa-1 features:
    • Both upper and lower pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory paths).
    • Four beautifully decorated toranas (gateways) depicting events from the life of the Buddha and the Jatakas.

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• Artistic Characteristics of Sanchi Sculptures
  • Figures are in high relief, filling the entire space with naturalistic postures.
  • Stylistic Advancements:
    • Reduced rigidity in contours and increased movement in images.

      

    • Heads are prominently projected within the picture space.
    • Advanced carving techniques compared to Bharhut.
• Symbolic Representation
  • Symbols continued to represent the Buddha, maintaining the tradition of aniconic representation.

    

  • Narrative panels became more elaborate, as seen in:
    • The siege of Kushinara.
    • Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu.
    • Ashoka’s visit to the Ramgrama Stupa.
• Queen Mayadevi’s Dream Episode
  • The depiction remains simple, showing:
    • A reclining image of Queen Mayadevi.
    • An elephant descending towards her, symbolizing the Buddha’s conception.
• Regional Variations: Mathura and Vengi
  • At Mathura, sculptures exhibit a similar quality to Sanchi but differ in physiognomic details.
  • In Vengi, stylistic variations emerge, reflecting regional artistic traditions.

Development of Mathura, Sarnath, and Gandhara Schools of Art

• Development of Mathura, Sarnath, and Gandhara Schools of Art
  • From the first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan), Mathura in northern India, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh emerged as significant centers of art production.
  • The Buddha, previously depicted in symbolic forms, began to be represented in human form at both Mathura and Gandhara.

    

• Unique Features of Gandhara School
  • Gandhara's sculptural tradition reflected a confluence of Bactrian, Parthian, and local Gandhara styles.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • Hellenistic features in Buddha images.
    • Naturalistic drapery folds and detailed facial expressions.

      

• Distinctive Traits of Mathura School
  • Mathura developed a strong indigenous sculptural tradition that spread across northern India.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • The Buddha image was modeled after earlier Yaksha images.
    • Early Jain Teerthankar images and portraits, including the headless statue of Kanishka, were found.
    • Images of Vaishnava (e.g., Vishnu) and Shaiva (e.g., lingas and mukhalingas) deities were also prominent.
  • Sculptural Style:
    • Bold carvings with large volumes projecting from the picture plane.
    • Faces were round and smiling, and garments were clearly visible, often covering the left shoulder.
    • In the second century CE, images became more sensual and fleshy, a trend that continued into the fourth century CE.
    • By the fifth and sixth centuries CE, images became more slender with integrated, transparent drapery.
• Contributions of Sarnath School
  • Sarnath emerged as an important art production center alongside Mathura and Kosambi in northern India.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • Buddha images featured plain, transparent drapery covering both shoulders.
    • The halo around the head had minimal ornamentation.
• Comparison of Buddha Images: Mathura vs. Sarnath
  • Mathura: Depicted drapery folds prominently with highly decorated halos.
  • Sarnath: Emphasized simplicity with plain drapery and minimally ornamented halos.
• Important Sites and Museums
  • Key sites include Devnimori in Gujarat, located outside the Gangetic valley.
  • Museums at Mathura, Sarnath, Varanasi, New Delhi, Chennai, and Amaravati exhibit notable early sculptures.
• Later Trends in Sculptures
  • In subsequent centuries, sculptures retained slender forms with transparent drapery as a dominant aesthetic sensibility.

Buddhist Monuments of South India

• Major Stupa Sites in Andhra Pradesh
  • Key stupa sites include:
    • Jagayyapetta
    • Amaravati
    • Bhattiprolu
    • Nagarjunkonda
    • Goli
  • Amaravati features a mahachaitya with many sculptures preserved in:
    • Chennai Museum
    • Amaravati Site Museum
    • National Museum, New Delhi
    • British Museum, London
  • Unique features of the Amaravati Stupa:
    • Pradakshinapatha enclosed within a vedika
    • Domical structure covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs
    • Depictions of events from Buddha's life and Jataka stories
    • Construction evidence from the third century BCE
    • Development during the first and second centuries CE

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• Sculptural Characteristics of Amaravati
  • Early phase sculptures:
    • Devoid of Buddha images
    • Emphasis on narrative reliefs
  • Later phase sculptures:
    • Buddha images carved on drum slabs
    • Figures in dynamic postures (e.g., semi-back, profile, frontal)
    • Complex sculptural compositions with intense emotions
  • Sculptural forms:
    • Slender figures with three-bent posture (tribhanga)
    • Dynamic movement breaking static form
    • Pronounced volume and overlapping figures
    • Clarity of form despite complex compositions
• Depictions in Narrative Reliefs
  • Events from the life of Buddha and Jataka stories are depicted, including:
    • Birth event of Buddha with Queen Mayadevi and attendants
    • Dream of Queen Mayadevi shown through a small elephant
    • Four events related to Buddha's birth
• Sculptures at Nagarjunkonda and Goli
  • Features of Nagarjunkonda and Goli sculptures:
    • Reduced animated movement compared to Amaravati
    • Low relief volume with suggestive body protrusions

      

  • Independent Buddha images found at:
    • Amaravati
    • Nagarjunkonda
    • Guntapalle
• Rock-Cut Sites and Other Stupa Locations
  • Guntapalle:
    • Rock-cut cave site near Eluru
    • Small apsidal and circular chaitya halls from the second century BCE
  • Anakapalle:
    • Rock-cut stupas excavated near Vishakhapatanam
  • Sannati:
    • Located in Karnataka, Gulbarga district
    • Largest stupa site with sculptural reliefs similar to Amaravati
• Structured Temples and Viharas
  • Structured chaityas and viharas evidence found, but few survived.
  • Important examples:
    • Apsidal chaitya at Sanchi (Temple 18)
    • Structured temples at Guntapalle
• Buddhist Iconography
  • Includes images of:
    • Buddha
    • Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya

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  • With Vajrayana Buddhism's rise, Bodhisattvas represented personified virtues for public welfare.

Cave Tradition in Western India

• Cave Tradition in Western India
  • Types of Buddhist Caves:
    • Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls (e.g., Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja).
    • Apsidal vault-roof pillarless halls (e.g., Thana-Nadsur in Maharashtra).
    • Flat-roofed quadrangular halls with a circular chamber at the back (e.g., Kondivite in Maharashtra).
  • Architectural Features:
    • Chaitya halls typically feature a stupa at the back.
    • Front designs are dominated by semi-circular chaitya arches with open fronts and wooden facades.
    • Some sites, like Kondivite, lack a prominent chaitya arch window.

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  • Notable Sites and Examples:
    • Ajanta Cave No. 9:
      • Modified apsidal vault-roof design with a rectangular hall and stone-screen facade.
    • Karla Chaitya Hall:
      • The largest rock-cut chaitya hall featuring:
        • An open courtyard with two pillars.
        • A veranda, a stone-screen facade, and apsidal vault-roof hall with pillars.
        • Human and animal figures in heavy execution and dynamic movement.
    • Kanheri Cave No. 3:
      • Further elaboration on Karla’s plan with unfinished interiors showcasing progressive carving techniques.
  • Vihara Caves:
    • Common layout includes a veranda, hall, and cells around the walls.
    • Notable examples:
      • Ajanta Cave No. 12, Bedsa Cave No. 11, Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10, and 17.
      • Junnar Vihara, also known as Ganeshleni, with later-added Ganesha image and stupa.
    • Decorative features:
      • Chaitya arches and vedica designs over cell doors.
      • Ghata-base and ghata-capital carvings with human figures (e.g., Nashik caves).

        

  • Prominent Excavations:
    • Junnar:
      • Largest cave excavation with over 200 caves around the hills.
    • Kanheri:
      • 108 caves excavated in Mumbai, showcasing extensive Buddhist architecture.
    • Other significant sites:
      • Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Bhaja, Karla.
      • Ajanta, Ellora, and Kanheri continued to flourish in later periods.

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Ajanta Caves

• Ajanta Caves: An Overview
  • Located in the Aurangabad District, Maharashtra, Ajanta comprises 29 caves.

    

  • Caves date back to:
    • Second and First Century BCE (Cave Nos. 10 and 9).
    • Fifth Century CE (Cave Nos. 19 and 26).
  • Known for its:
    • Chaitya halls and vihara caves.
    • Decoration with sculptures and paintings.
    • First and only surviving example of paintings from the 1st century BCE and 5th century CE.
• Cave Classification
  • Early Phase
    • Caves 10, 9, 12, and 13.

      

  • Transition Phase
    • Caves 11, 15, 6 (upper and lower), and 7.
  • Later Phase (5th–6th Century CE)
    • Majority of the caves, including chaityas 19 and 26.
    • Vihara-chaitya caves feature:
      • Pillared verandas, halls, and cells along walls.
      • Main Buddha shrines on back walls.
• Notable Architectural Features
  • Chaitya Caves
    • Caves 19 and 26 have elaborately carved facades featuring Buddha and Bodhisattva images.
    • Apsidal-vault-roofed designs dominate the architectural style.
  • Vihara Caves
    • Pillared verandas and halls with cells along walls.
    • Some unfinished caves: 5, 14, 23, 24, 28, and 29.
• Notable Patrons
  • Varahadeva: Patron of Cave 16; Prime Minister of Vakataka King Harishena.
  • Upendragupta: Patron of Caves 17–20; local king and Vakataka feudatory.
  • Buddhabhadra: Patron of Cave 26.
  • Mathuradasa: Patron of Cave 4.
• Paintings: Key Features
  • Early Phase

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    • Caves 9 and 10 feature paintings with limited colors and linear arrangements.
    • Figures are broad and naturalistic with minimal stylization.
  • Later Phase
    • Paintings in Caves 1, 2, 16, and 17 are precise and elegant.
    • Features include:
      • Rhythmic movements and dark contours.
      • Multicolored populations depicted using brown, yellow ochre, and greenish shades.

        

        

• Important Themes and Motifs
  • Events from Buddha's life, the Jatakas, and the Avadanas.
  • Notable works:
    • Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka, and Vidhurpundita Jataka.
    • Paintings of Padmapani and Vajrapani in Cave 1.
    • Chaddanta Jataka painted with geographical separation in Cave 10.

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• Artistic Style and Techniques
  • Figures depicted with:
    • Heavy proportions in early paintings; lighter and rhythmic in later works.
    • Naturalistic postures and unexaggerated facial features.
  • Integration of architectural and pictorial elements for three-dimensional effects.

Introduction to Ellora

• Introduction to Ellora
  • Located in the Aurangabad District of Maharashtra, about 100 kilometers from Ajanta.
  • Comprises 34 caves, associated with three religions:
    • Buddhist
    • Brahmanical
    • Jain
  • Dates back to the 5th–11th century CE.
  • Renowned for its stylistic eclecticism, showcasing a confluence of various art styles.
• Buddhist Caves at Ellora
  • Twelve Buddhist caves, depicting Vajrayana Buddhist deities, including:
    • Tara
    • Mahamayuri
    • Akshobhya
    • Avalokiteshwara
    • Maitrya
    • Amitabha

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  • Notable features of Buddhist caves:
    • Large-sized caves with single, double, and triple storeys.
    • Massive pillars and shrines with large Buddha images, often flanked by Padmapani and Vajrapani.
    • Cave No. 12: A triple-storey excavation with images of:
      • Tara
      • Avalokiteshwara
      • Manushi Buddhas
      • Other deities like Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amoghasiddhi, etc.
• Brahmanical Caves at Ellora
  • Cave Nos. 13–28: Primarily dedicated to Shaivism, with notable depictions of:
    • Ravana shaking Mount Kailash
    • Andhakasuravadha
    • Kalyanasundara

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  • Vaishnavite themes include depictions of Vishnu's various avatars.
  • Key features of Brahmanical caves:
    • Monumental sculptures with deep recessions and protruding volumes.
    • Notable caves:
      • Cave No. 16: Kailash Temple, carved out of a single rock, a unique feat.

        

      • Cave No. 29: Similar plan to the main cave at Elephanta.
      • Cave No. 21: Sculptural quality showcases vibrant movements in space.
• Jain Caves at Ellora
  • Belong to the 9th century CE.
  • Feature highly ornate decorative forms with heavy protrusions.
• Artistic Contributions at Ellora
  • Sculptures created by various guilds from regions like:
    • Vidarbha
    • Karnataka
    • Tamil Nadu
  • Diversity in sculptural styles makes Ellora an unparalleled site in India.

Bagh Caves of Madhya pradesh

• Location and General Overview
  • Location: The Bagh Caves are located 97 km from Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh, India.
  • Time Period: These rock-cut monuments were carved over a period, mostly during the Satvahana period of ancient India.
  • Nature of the Caves: The caves are not natural formations but were carved into the sandstone rock face of a hill across the seasonal Baghani stream.
• Number of Caves
  • Out of the original nine caves, only five have survived.
  • All the surviving caves are viharas (resting places for monks) and follow a quadrangular plan.
  • A small chamber at the back of these caves forms the Chatiya (prayer hall).
• Cave No. 4 (Rang Mahal)
  • Common Name: Cave No. 4 is commonly known as the Rang Mahal, meaning "Palace of Colours."
  • Significance: Cave No. 4 is the most significant of the caves due to the paintings on the walls and ceilings, which are still visible today.
• Other Caves with Mural Paintings
  • Caves with Mural Paintings: Mural paintings can still be seen in Cave Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 7, with remnants of tempera paintings on the walls and ceilings.
• Painting Techniques and Preservation
  • Surface Preparation: The surface for the murals was prepared with reddish-brown gritty mud plaster, applied thickly on the walls and ceilings.
  • Lime Priming: Lime priming was done over the plaster before the paintings were made.
  • Significance of Paintings: Some of the most beautiful paintings were located on the walls of the portico of Cave 4.
  • Preservation Efforts: To prevent further loss of these valuable artworks, many of the paintings were carefully removed in 1982 and are now housed in the Archaeological Museum of Gwalior.

Elephanta Caves and Other Sites

• Elephanta Caves
  • Located near Mumbai in Maharashtra.
  • Dominated by the Shaivite faith.
  • Contemporary with the caves at Ellora.
  • Key features of the sculptures:
    • Show slender body forms.
    • Exhibit stark light and dark effects, creating dramatic visual contrasts.
• Rock-Cut Cave Tradition in the Deccan
  • Continued development of rock-cut caves beyond Maharashtra.
  • Significant sites and their patrons:
    • Badami and Aihole in Karnataka:
      • Executed under the patronage of the Chalukyas.
    • Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh:
      • Prominent center for rock-cut architecture.
    • Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu:
      • Executed under the patronage of the Pallavas.

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  • Artistic development post-sixth century was influenced by political patronage rather than collective public support.
• Terracotta Figurines
  • Found at many sites across India, representing a parallel tradition to lithic sculptures.
  • Types and purposes:
    • Toys: Depict everyday life and provide entertainment.
    • Religious figurines: Used for devotional practices.
    • Healing figurines: Created as part of local belief systems for therapeutic purposes.
  • Figurines vary in size, showcasing their wide popularity among different communities.

Buddhist Caves in Eastern India

• Buddhist Caves in Eastern India
  • Primarily located in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
  • Key Sites:
    • Guntapalle (Eluru District, Andhra Pradesh):
      • Unique site combining:
        • Structured stupas.
        • Viharas.
        • Rock-cut caves.
      • Chaitya Cave:
        • Circular hall with a stupa at the center.
        • Chaitya arch carved at the entrance.
        • Relatively small compared to Western Indian caves.
      • Vihara Caves:
        • Rectangular with vaulted roofs.
        • Single- or double-storeyed, without large central halls.
        • Exterior decorated with chaitya arches.
        • Dating back to the second century BCE.
        • Additional excavations in later centuries were of the vihara type.
    • Rampaerrampallam (Andhra Pradesh):
      • Features small excavations and rock-cut stupas on hillocks.
    • Anakapalli (Near Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh):
      • Fourth–fifth centuries CE.
      • Home to the biggest rock-cut stupa in India.
      • Numerous votive rock-cut stupas around the hillock.
• Rock-Cut Cave Tradition in Odisha
  • Udaigiri-Khandagiri Caves (Near Bhubaneswar):

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    • Earliest examples of rock-cut caves in Odisha.
    • Features:
      • Single-cell excavations.
      • Caves carved from large boulders, sometimes shaped like animals.
      • Caves with pillared verandas and cells at the back.
      • Upper portions of cells decorated with chaitya arches.
    • Inscriptions:
      • Attributed to Kharavela Jain kings.
      • Caves were used by Jain monks.
    • Sculptural Style:
      • Figures are voluminous and dynamic, moving freely in the picture space.

        

      • Excellent examples of qualitative carving.
    • Later Excavations:
      • Some caves were added during the eighth–ninth centuries CE.

Mathura: A Major Sculpture Center

• Mathura: A Major Sculpture Center
  • Mathura was a significant center for sculpture during the early historic period, especially during the Kushana Period.
  • The distinct sculpting style in Mathura makes its images unique compared to other regions in India.
• Buddha Image from the Katra Mound
  • Period: Second century CE.
  • Representation: The Buddha is seated in padmasana (cross-legged position) with two Bodhisattva attendants.
  • Features of the Buddha Image:
    • Right Hand: Raised above shoulder level in abhayamudra (gesture of fearlessness).
    • Left Hand: Resting on the left thigh.
    • Ushnisha: A hair knot with a vertical raised projection.
    • Volume: Light volume, fleshy body with broad shoulders.
    • Garment: The sanghati (garment) covers only one shoulder, highlighting the left hand and reducing to fit the torso.
    • Throne: Buddha is seated on a lion throne.

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  • Attendants:
    • The attendants are identified as Padmapani and Vajrapani Bodhisattvas.
    • Padmapani holds a lotus, while Vajrapani holds a vajra (thunderbolt).
    • Both Bodhisattvas wear crowns and stand on either side of the Buddha.
  • Halo:
    • The halo around the Buddha’s head is large and decorated with simple geometric motifs.
    • Two flying figures are placed diagonally above the halo, conveying movement in the picture space.
  • Stylistic Features:
    • The images show flexibility and a more earthy look, replacing earlier rigidity.
    • The body is delicately carved with gentle curves.
    • The Buddha’s posture creates movement in space.
    • The face is round with fleshy cheeks and a sculpted belly with controlled musculature.
• Importance of the Image
  • This image is considered representative of the Kushana Period sculptures from Mathura.
  • It plays a crucial role in understanding the evolution of the Buddha image in later periods.

Buddha Head from Taxila (Gandhara Region)

• Buddha Head from Taxila
  • Period: Second century CE, belonging to the Kushana period.
  • Region: Gandhara, now in Pakistan.
  • The image shows hybridized pictorial conventions that developed during the Gandhara period.
  • The Buddha head is influenced by Greco-Roman elements in sculpture.
• Stylistic Features of the Buddha Head
  • Hair: The Buddha’s curly hair is thick with sharp and linear strokes covering the head.
  • Forehead: The forehead plane is large, with protruding eyeballs.
  • Eyes: The eyes are half-closed, displaying a calm expression.
  • Facial Features: The face and cheeks are not round, unlike the images from other parts of India, showing a certain heaviness.
  • Ears: The ears, especially the earlobes, are elongated.
  • Form: The treatment of the form is linear, with sharp outlines and a smooth surface.

    

  • Expressiveness: The image is highly expressive, with particular attention to the interplay of light and dark.
  • Light and Dark: Emphasis on the curving and protruding planes of the eye-socket and nose planes.
  • Expression: The central focus is the calmness and serenity expressed on the Buddha’s face.
  • Naturalism: The modelling of the face enhances the three-dimensionality and naturalism of the image.
• Hybridized Artistic Style
  • The image assimilates various traits from the Achaemenian, Parthian, and Bactrian traditions.
  • While the Buddha head has Greco-Roman physiognomic features, it also displays a distinct way of treating those features that is not purely Greco-Roman.
• Gandhara Art: Cultural Context
  • The Gandhara region, now part of Pakistan, has been continuously inhabited since proto-historic times.
  • Many images, including those of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, as well as Jataka narratives, have been found in this region.
• Gandhara Artistic Legacy
  • The Gandhara style is known for its distinctive way of treating physiognomic details, blending influences from both Western and Eastern traditions.
  • The development of the Buddha image and other sculptures in Gandhara is rooted in this unique fusion of styles.

Buddha Image from Sarnath

• Buddha Image from Sarnath
  • Period: Late fifth century CE.
  • Material: Chunar sandstone.
  • Location: Housed in the site museum at Sarnath.
  • The image represents dhammachackrapravartana (the turning of the wheel of dhamma).
• Iconography and Symbolism
  • Throne: The Buddha is shown seated on a throne in padmasana (lotus posture).
  • Throne Panel: The panel below the throne depicts a chakra (wheel) in the center with a deer on either side, accompanied by disciples. This symbolizes the preaching of the dhamma.
  • Symbolism: The image illustrates the historical event of dhammachackrapravartana, the Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath.

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• Artistic Features of the Buddha Image
  • Body: The body is slender and well-proportioned, slightly elongated, with delicate and rhythmic outlines.
  • Legs: The folded legs are expanded to create a visual balance in the picture space.
  • Drapery: The drapery clings to the body and appears transparent, creating the effect of integrated volume.
  • Face: The face is round, with half-closed eyes, a protruding lower lip, and reduced roundness in the cheeks compared to earlier images (e.g., Mathura).
  • Hands: The hands are positioned in the dhammachackrapravartana mudra (teaching gesture) just below the chest.
  • Neck: The neck is slightly elongated, with two incised lines indicating folds.
  • Ushnisha: The ushnisha (topknot) is depicted with circular curled hairs.
• Symbolic Representation of Buddha
  • The aim of ancient Indian sculptors was to represent the Buddha as a great human being who achieved nibbana (cessation of anger and hate).
• Decoration and Detail
  • Throne Decoration: The back of the throne is profusely decorated with motifs of flowers and creepers arranged in concentric circles.
  • Halo: The central part of the halo is plain, making it visually impressive.
  • Artisan Sensitivity: The decoration of the halo and throne indicates the artisan’s sensitivity to design and detail.
• Softness in Treatment
  • Sarnath Buddha images from this period exhibit considerable softness in the treatment of the surface and volume.
  • Refinement: The use of transparent drapery becomes part of the physical body, showcasing refinement that developed over time.
  • These stylistic features continued into subsequent periods.
• Other Buddha Images from Sarnath
  • There are several standing Buddha images from Sarnath with similar features, such as transparent drapery and subtle movement.
  • These images are placed around the memorial stupas, such as the Dharmarajika Stupa, and are now preserved in the Sarnath Museum.
  • Some of these images are accompanied by attendant Bodhisattvas like Padmapani and Vajrapani.

Painting of the Bodhisattva in Cave No. 1 at Ajanta

• Painting in Cave No. 1 at Ajanta
  • Period: Late fifth century CE.
  • Location: Back wall of the interior hall before the shrine-antechamber in Cave No. 1 at Ajanta.
• Bodhisattva Iconography
  • Posture: The Bodhisattva holds a padma (lotus) and has large shoulders, creating a sense of movement with three bends in the body.
  • Modelling: The modelling is soft, with outlines merged into the body volume to create a three-dimensional effect.
  • Crown: The Bodhisattva wears a large, detailed crown.
  • Head: The head is slightly bent to the left, with half-closed, slightly elongated eyes, a sharp, straight nose, and a well-defined chin.
  • Facial Detailing: Light colour applied to the projected planes of the face enhances the three-dimensional effect.
  • Necklace: The beaded necklace has similar modelling and detailing as the face.
  • Body Features: Broad and expanded shoulders create a sense of heaviness, and the torso is round. Delicate, rhythmic lines define the body’s contours.
  • Hands: The right hand holds a lotus, and the left hand is extended into the space.
  • Surrounding Figures: The Bodhisattva is surrounded by small figures, adding depth to the composition.
  • Solid Composition: The foreshortened right hand adds solidity, and fine spiral lines on the thread over the torso indicate its dimensions.
• Colour and Detail
  • Colours such as light red, brown, green, and blue are used throughout the painting.
  • Facial Details: Nose projections, incised lips with lower lip projection, and a small chin contribute to the figure’s solidity.
• Artistic Style
  • The paintings in Cave No. 1 are of high quality and better preserved compared to others at Ajanta.
  • Typological and stylistic variations indicate different guilds of artisans worked on the cave paintings over the centuries.
• Vajrapani Bodhisattva
  • On the other side of the image, Vajrapani Bodhisattva is painted holding a vajra (thunderbolt) in his right hand and wearing a crown.
  • The Vajrapani image shares the same pictorial qualities as Padmapani Bodhisattva.
• Thematic and Iconographic Context
  • The paintings depict Buddhist themes such as Mahajanak Jataka and Umag Jataka.
  • Mahajanak Jataka: Painted on the entire wall side and considered the largest narrative painting in Cave No. 1.
  • Guardians: Padmapani and Vajrapani are painted as shrine guardians, a common iconographic arrangement in Ajanta caves.
  • Padmapani and Vajrapani in Cave No. 1 are among the best-preserved and finest examples of Ajanta's paintings.

Mara Vijaya Theme in Ajanta

• Mara Vijaya Theme in Ajanta
  • Location: Sculpted on the right wall of Cave No. 26, near the colossal Buddha image of Mahaparinibbana.
  • Theme: Depicts the event of Mara’s defeat during the Buddha’s enlightenment, representing the turmoil in the Buddha's mind at the time.

    

• Iconography of the Panel
  • Buddha’s Position: The Buddha is placed at the center in a padmasana (lotus position), with his right hand pointing towards the earth, invoking it as a witness to his generosity.
  • Mara and His Army: Mara, representing desire, is shown with his army and his daughter surrounding the Buddha.
  • Mara's Army: The army includes figures with grotesque animal faces, highlighting the destructive power of desire.
  • Dynamic Composition: The sculptural panel is highly animated and dynamic, with figures in complex arrangements creating significant movement in the space.
• Detailed Figures and Movement
  • Dancing Figures: At the lower base, there are dancers with forward-bulging waists, one with expanded hands in a dance posture, and an angular frontal look.
  • Mara's Contemplation: On the left lower end, Mara is depicted contemplating how to disturb Siddhartha (the Buddha before enlightenment).
  • Mara's Army's March: The first half of the panel shows Mara's army marching towards the Buddha, while the lower half shows the army departing, giving Mara adorations.
• Environmental Elements
  • Tree Representation: Behind the Buddha is a tree, rendered with dense leaves, symbolizing enlightenment and grounding.
• Stylistic Features
  • Facial Features: Some of the facial features of Mara’s army show influences from sculptures in Vidarbha, reflecting the artistic diversity at Ajanta.
  • Guild-based Craftsmanship: The artisans at Ajanta worked in guilds, and their stylistic affiliations can be identified through these features.
• Significance of the Panel
  • Size: This is the largest sculptural panel at Ajanta, remarkable for its complexity.
  • Unique Composition: Unlike other large sculptures at Ajanta, this panel's arrangement of figures is unique for its complexity and dynamic movement.
  • Comparison with Painted Panels: Similar complexities are seen in the painted panels at Ajanta and at the Aurangabad caves, particularly with dancing figures.

Gupta Period : Art & Architecture

Architecture, Art and Patronage

Only a few, small examples of temple architecture have survived from this period. The stock answer to temples being in ruins is that the iconoclasm of the Muslims five centuries later destroyed them. But the Gupta-period temples were unlikely to have attracted attention, the architecture still being in a formative stage. Apart from its religious affiliation, the temple was not yet perceived as a statement of political power or as a repository of wealth, and was therefore not a prime target for attack.

Artistically and aesthetically, the most stunning achievements were the rock-cut Buddhist caves, particularly at Ajanta and Ellora. These were the inspiration for the later Vaishnava and Shaiva rock-cut temples at Ellora, Elephanta, and Aurangabad. The latter were perhaps less statements of power than statements of faith, and they did not experience iconoclasm.

Some Buddhist stupas were newly built, as in Sind; others were renovated as at Sarnath. Activity in Orissa resulted in continued building of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, the most impressive being those at Lalitagiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri, which clearly reflected patronage by the rulers and merchants. Buddhist monasteries and chaityas at Ajanta and Ellora are cut into a ravine and a hillside.

The caves at Ajanta were decorated with sculpture, and some contained mural paintings depicting the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, and other familiar narratives, that in effect provide a visual representation of contemporary life. The cross-section of society seemingly stepping out from the walls is complementary to the scenes earlier sculpted in bas-relief at stupa sites. The quality of realism in these murals evokes in a remarkable way the joie de vivre of daily activities, as well as reflections on the human condition, and yet they are enveloped in a style both elegant and aesthetically pleasing.

Literary references to painting are frequent, and it was widely appreciated as an accomplishment. The aesthetic quality emanating from these cave shrines leaves the early Shaiva and Vaishnava temples looking rather pale by comparison. The most impressive artistic achievements of this period lie in Buddhist art and the patronage that accompanies it. Ajanta epitomized its finest stylistic quality in painting and, although it might have been politically influenced by the Vakataka-Gupta sphere, it effectively represented Buddhist art rooted in the peninsula.

• Ajanta - Known for its finest stylistic quality in painting and sculpture.
• Ellora - Rock-cut Buddhist caves, which later inspired Vaishnava and Shaiva rock-cut temples.
• Sanchi - Early temples, single cells housing the image.
• Aihole, Tigowa, Bhumara, Nachna Kothara, Ladh Khan, Deogarh - Sites with early temples and architectural significance.
• Chezarla, Ter - Early apsidal temples, thought to be converted Buddhist chaityas.
• Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh - Among the earliest dedicated to the incarnations of Vishnu.
• Sarnath, Mathura, Kushinagara, Bodh Gaya - Famous for classical sculpture of the Buddha.
• Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Durga, Varaha - Puranic deities worshiped in temples.
• Vaishnava and Shaiva representations - Iconic, symbolic representations with many arms, each symbolizing attributes.
• Shiva Lingam - Often represented in a symbolic, rather than anthropomorphic form.
• Terracotta figures - A popular medium for images, mass-produced, accessible to the general public.
• Ganga and Yamuna - Striking representations of river goddesses in terracotta.

Early Temple Architecture and Sites

The earliest temples were single cells housing the image, as at Sanchi. Such temples form the nucleus at Aihole, Tigowa, Bhumara, Nachna Kothara, Ladh Khan, and Deogarh, among others. Some sites were existing sacred places, like Aihole, with megalithic burials nearby. Early temples at Chezarla and Ter were initially Buddhist chaityas converted into temples.

Temple Financing and Worship

When temples began receiving land grants, it became a major source of finance. Worship was generally focused on Puranic deities, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Durga, and Varaha. The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh is one of the earliest dedicated to the incarnations of Vishnu.

Temple Architecture

The architecture of Shaiva and Vaishnava temples centered around the sanctum cella (garbha-griha), housing the deity's image. Small temples had entrances through a porch, while larger temples expanded to include vestibules, halls, and courtyards, eventually forming a complex of shrines.

Development of Free-standing Temples

Buddhist rock-cut chaityas were imitated by Vaishnavas, Shaivas, and Jainas. Free-standing temples, primarily built in stone (though an early brick temple exists at Bhitargaon), were preferred due to the limitations of rock-cut caves. These temples featured rich sculptural ornamentation as the image was surrounded by attendants and other figures.

Sculpture and Iconography

Classical sculpture, particularly in the Buddha images from Sarnath, Mathura, and Bodh Gaya, influenced the portrayal of Vaishnava and Shaiva deities as symbolic icons, often with multiple arms representing attributes. Shiva was typically represented as a lingam, sometimes with sculpted faces or bodies, while other anthropomorphic forms were evolving.

Terracotta as a Medium

Terracotta became a popular medium for images due to its accessibility. It was used to depict deities and human figures, often mass-produced in molds. These figures, found in abundance in the Ganges Plain and eastern India, ranged from religious icons to decorative pieces or toys. Large terracotta forms included representations of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.