history of the south, including the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas

The southern end of the Indian peninsula was divided into three prominent kingdoms: Chola, Pandya, and Chera (also known as Kerala).

The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.

He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman.

All this sounds exaggerated but suggests that the Pandya society was matriarchal.

The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC.

The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.

Territory: Cholamandalam or Coromandal, located northeast of the Pandya territory, between the Pennar and Velur rivers.

Political History: Established a significant political presence under King Karikala around A.D. 100. Elara, a Chola king, conquered Sri Lanka in the middle of the second century B.C.

Capital: Uraiyur, renowned for its cotton trade. Puhar (Kaveripattanam) served as the Chola capital, a bustling center of trade and commerce.

Economy: Thrived on trade in cotton cloth, maintaining an efficient navy that sailed extensively, reaching as far as the Malaya archipelago.

Decline: Under successors of Karikala, Chola power declined rapidly. Kaveripattanam, their capital, was overwhelmed and destroyed, leading to their marginalization in south Indian history from the fourth to the ninth century A.D.

Architecture: Besides their military and economic achievements, the Cholas were known for their architectural prowess. They constructed magnificent temples adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures, showcasing their devotion to religion and art.

Literature and Culture: The Chola period saw a flourishing of Tamil literature and culture. Poets like Ottakoothar and Kambar produced timeless literary works, and the Cholas patronized various art forms, including music and dance.

Maritime Expeditions: Apart from trade, the Cholas undertook ambitious maritime expeditions. They are believed to have sent naval missions as far as Southeast Asia, asserting their dominance in the Indian Ocean trade network.

Legal System: The Cholas had a sophisticated legal system, as evidenced by inscriptions detailing various laws and punishments. They emphasized justice and fair governance, contributing to social stability and order.

The Chola Empire

• The Chola Empire, an illustrious and enduring dynasty that thrived in South India from the 9th to the 13th centuries, remains a paramount chapter in the history of the Indian subcontinent. Renowned for its remarkable achievements in governance, art, architecture, and maritime trade, the Chola Empire left an indelible mark on the cultural and political landscape of the region. With its capital at Thanjavur, the Chola rulers established a flourishing realm that spanned from the southern tip of the Indian peninsula to parts of Southeast Asia.
• This introduction serves as a gateway to explore the fascinating history, remarkable accomplishments, and enduring legacy of the Chola Empire, a civilization that continues to captivate the imagination and curiosity of historians, scholars, and enthusiasts alike.

Sources

• More than 10,000 inscriptions were engraved on copper and stone.
• Literary sources, such as Tamil literature flourished during this period.

Political History

• Cholas remained subordinates to Pallavas after the Sangam Age.
• Re-emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya (850-871 CE).
• Parantaka I (907-955) broadened the base of Chola governance.
• Parantaka I suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas.

Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.)

• Engaged in naval expeditions and conquered the West Coast, Sri Lanka, and Maldives.
• Direct control of Chola authority over northern and eastern Sri Lanka.
• Defeated Cheras in the battle of Kandanur Salai.
• Successful expedition against Western and Eastern Chalukyas.
• Completed the construction of Rajarajeswara temple.
• Abdicated his throne for his son Rajendra Chola I.

Rajendra I

• Conducted a successful expedition to northern India.
• Defeated Mahipala I of Bengal.
• Founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple.
• Naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya (Indonesia).
• Annexed total Sri Lanka.
• Established educational institutes in his empire.

Kulathunga Chola I

• Abolished many taxes.
• Sent trade embassies to China.
• United the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.
• Contemporary to Ramanujacharya.

King and Administration in Chola Empire

• The Chola Empire was ruled by an emperor or king who had all the authority in his hands. The king often went on tours to keep in touch with the administration. Brahmins were appointed as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus, and huge estates of land were granted to them as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams. The provinces were divided into mandalams, valanadus, and nadus, and each nadu had several autonomous villages. The military administration was managed by a large army consisting of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. The revenue administration was managed through extensive land surveys and revenue settlements. Local administration was managed by two types of villages, and various taxes and dues were levied on goods and ceremonies.

Religion in Chola Empire

• The Chola rulers were ardent Saivites, and Shiva was the preeminent god for them. Saiva Siddhanta was a highly evolved philosophical system founded during this period. However, there were serious clashes between Shaivites and Vaishnavites. Kulathunga Chola was an ardent Shaivite who persecuted Vaishnavites, leading Bhakti saint Ramnujacharya to leave Srirangam and settle in Melkote, Karnataka.

Society in Chola Empire

• During the Chola period, Aryanisation was consolidated, and the Sanskritisation process started. The caste system was widely prevalent, and Chola society witnessed a division of caste into “Idangai” and “Vadangai.” The practice of sati became sacred, and a new social evil called the Devadasi system came into practice.

Literature in Chola Empire

• Tamil and Sanskrit literature flourished during the Chola period, and T amil literature flourished during the Chola period, and Tamil literature witnessed a golden age. Some notable Tamil literary works include Kamban Ramayan by Kamban, Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar, Kalladam by Kalladanar, and Nalavenba by Pugalendi. Kesava swami composed the Sanskrit work Nannaranava Samkshevam.

Architecture in Chola Empire

• Chola art saw the culmination of Dravida temple art, resulting in the construction of the most sophisticated buildings. Cholas followed the architectural style of the Pallavas, adding greater refinement and mostly involving the construction of temples in the Dravidian style. Stone was used instead of bricks for its greater durability. The temples had intricate frescos, including birds, dancing figurines, and other pictorial stories from Puranas. Some temples have portraits of the Kings and queens themselves. The temples were covered with exquisite well-composed sculptures and frescoes. The presence of water tanks was a unique feature of Chola architecture. Examples include Brihadeswara and Vijayalaya temples and the most memorable figures built during the Chola period were the Ganas. Yazhi, a recurring pattern of the sculpted mythical animals, was also a unique feature, and the Dvarpalas at the entrance of the mandap became a unique feature.

Brihadeswara Temple

• The Grand Temple of Tanjavur, known as Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as an outstanding example of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture, and iconography.
• Built by RajaRaja Chola.
• It has shadowless vimana.
• The sanctum with a vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone weighing 80 tons.
• The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhanarisvara, and Bikshadana, a mendicant form of Siva, on the outer walls of the sanctum are some unique features.
• The fresco paintings and the miniature sculptures of the scenes from Puranas and epics in the temple walls reveal the religious ideology of the Chola rulers.

Chola Bronze Sculptures

• The cire-perdu or ‘lost-wax’ process for casting was learned as long ago as the Indus Valley Culture. Discovery of bronze alloy made by mixing copper, zinc, and tin.
• South India developed bronze casting and making of traditional icons during the medieval period.
• Chola bronzes are highly sought-after by art lovers worldwide.
• Shiva Nataraja’s figure evolved and developed during the Chola Period, with many variations since.
• The Thanjavur region in Tamil Nadu evolved a wide range of Shiva iconography, including a remarkable Kalyana Sundara murti from the 9th century depicting the marriage ceremony.
• In Ardhanarisvara Murti, the union of Shiva and Parvati is represented in a single image.
• Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati are also modeled, standing in graceful tribhanga posture.

Kingdom	Significant Details
Three Early Kingdoms of Southern India	Timeline- 3rd century BC The southern end of the Indian peninsula was divided into three prominent kingdoms: Chola, Pandya, and Chera. First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that the Pandyas kingdom was celebrated for pearls. He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman, suggesting a matriarchal society. All this suggests the society of the Pandya kingdom was matriarchal. The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC. The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.
Cholas	Timeline- 9th century BC to 13th century AD Established significant political presence under King Karikala around 100 AD. Capital: Uraiyur and later Puhar (Kaveripattanam). Economy thrived on trade in cotton cloth and maintained an efficient navy. Known for their architectural prowess, constructing magnificent temples. Saw a flourishing of Tamil literature and culture. Undertook ambitious maritime expeditions, reaching Southeast Asia. Had a sophisticated legal system and emphasized justice and fair governance.
Pandyas	Timeline- 3rd century BC to 16th century AD Occupied the southernmost and southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula. Mentioned in Sangam literature, suggesting wealth and prosperity. Profited from trade with the Roman empire, known for trade in spices, ivory, pearls, and precious stones. Formidable warriors with a well-trained army. Patrons of the arts and literature, fostering a vibrant cultural environment. Known for religious tolerance and infrastructure development. Left a lasting legacy in South Indian history.
Cheras	Timeline- 3rd century BC to 12th century AD Situated to the west and north of the Pandya territory, covering a portion of modern Kerala State. Known for trade with the Romans and significant Roman presence at Muziris (Cranganore). Notable ruler Senguttuvan, known as the Red Chera. Traded spices, ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, and silk. Played a crucial role in the maritime trade networks of the Indian Ocean. Facilitated cultural exchange between India and foreign civilizations. Experienced dynastic politics and succession disputes. Left a lasting legacy in South Indian history.
Cholas Additional Data	Timeline- 9th to 13th centuries AD The Chola Empire was an illustrious dynasty that thrived in South India. Renowned for remarkable achievements in governance, art, architecture, and maritime trade. Capital at Thanjavur; established a flourishing realm spanning South India to Southeast Asia. Left indelible marks on the cultural and political landscape. More than 10,000 inscriptions and a flourishing of Tamil literature during this period. Saw political resurgence under Vijayalaya and expanded under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. Known for their naval expeditions, conquests, and architectural marvels like Brihadeswara Temple. Had a sophisticated administrative structure, legal system, and cultural patronage.