history of the south, including the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas

History of Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas

Three Early Kingdoms of Southern India

  • The southern end of the Indian peninsula was divided into three prominent kingdoms: Chola, Pandya, and Chera (also known as Kerala).
  • The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
  • He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman.
  • All this sounds exaggerated but suggests that the Pandya society was matriarchal.
  • The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC.
  • The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.
  • Cholas

  • Territory: Cholamandalam or Coromandal, located northeast of the Pandya territory, between the Pennar and Velur rivers.
  • Political History: Established a significant political presence under King Karikala around A.D. 100. Elara, a Chola king, conquered Sri Lanka in the middle of the second century B.C.
  • Capital: Uraiyur, renowned for its cotton trade. Puhar (Kaveripattanam) served as the Chola capital, a bustling center of trade and commerce.
  • Economy: Thrived on trade in cotton cloth, maintaining an efficient navy that sailed extensively, reaching as far as the Malaya archipelago.
  • Decline: Under successors of Karikala, Chola power declined rapidly. Kaveripattanam, their capital, was overwhelmed and destroyed, leading to their marginalization in south Indian history from the fourth to the ninth century A.D.
  • Architecture: Besides their military and economic achievements, the Cholas were known for their architectural prowess. They constructed magnificent temples adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures, showcasing their devotion to religion and art.
  • Literature and Culture: The Chola period saw a flourishing of Tamil literature and culture. Poets like Ottakoothar and Kambar produced timeless literary works, and the Cholas patronized various art forms, including music and dance.
  • Maritime Expeditions: Apart from trade, the Cholas undertook ambitious maritime expeditions. They are believed to have sent naval missions as far as Southeast Asia, asserting their dominance in the Indian Ocean trade network.
  • Legal System: The Cholas had a sophisticated legal system, as evidenced by inscriptions detailing various laws and punishments. They emphasized justice and fair governance, contributing to social stability and order.
  • Pandyas

  • Territory: Occupied the southernmost and southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula, including modern districts of Tinnevelly, Ramnad, and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
  • Society: Mentioned in Sangam literature, suggesting wealth and prosperity. Potentially matriarchal society. Enjoyed significant influence from Brahmanas.
  • Trade: Profited from trade with the Roman empire, sending embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus. Known for trade in spices, ivory, pearls, and precious stones.
  • Religion: Pandya kings performed Vedic sacrifices in the early centuries of the Christian era.
  • Military Achievements: In addition to their economic prosperity, the Pandyas were formidable warriors. They maintained a well-trained army and often engaged in conflicts with neighboring kingdoms to safeguard their territory and interests.
  • Cultural Patronage: The Pandya kings were patrons of the arts and literature. They sponsored the creation of literary works and commissioned grandiose temples, fostering a vibrant cultural environment in their kingdom.
  • Religious Tolerance: Despite their own religious practices, the Pandyas were known for their tolerance towards other faiths. They encouraged the flourishing of diverse religious traditions, contributing to religious harmony and diversity in their realm.
  • Infrastructure Development: The Pandyas invested in infrastructure projects, including the construction of irrigation systems and roads. These efforts aimed to enhance agricultural productivity and facilitate trade and transportation within their kingdom.
  • Cheras

  • Territory: Situated to the west and north of the Pandya territory, covering a portion of modern Kerala State.
  • Importance: Known for trade with the Romans, with significant Roman presence at Muziris (Cranganore). Engaged in conflicts with Cholas and Pandyas.
  • Rulers: Notable ruler Senguttuvan, known as the Red Chera, credited with routing rivals and establishing alliances. Decline observed after the second century A.D., with limited historical records until the eighth century A.D.
  • Trade and Prosperity: Traded spices, ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, and silk. Actively engaged in trade with Greek kingdoms, the Malaya archipelago, and China. Witnessed a decline with the waning of Roman trade.
  • Trade Networks: The Chera kingdom played a crucial role in the maritime trade networks of the Indian Ocean. They established lucrative trade relations with foreign powers, including the Roman empire, contributing to their economic prosperity.
  • Cultural Exchange: Through trade and diplomatic interactions, the Cheras facilitated cultural exchange between India and foreign civilizations. They absorbed foreign influences while also disseminating Indian culture and knowledge to distant lands.
  • Dynastic Politics: Like other kingdoms of the time, the Chera kingdom experienced dynastic rivalries and power struggles. Succession disputes and internal conflicts occasionally weakened the kingdom's stability and cohesion.
  • Legacy: Despite their eventual decline, the Cheras left a lasting legacy in South Indian history. Their contributions to trade, culture, and governance continue to influence the region's socio-economic and cultural landscape.
  • Cholas Additional Data

    The Chola Empire

    Structures of the Agrarian System in the Chola Kingdom

    The Chola kingdom is a subject of extensive study regarding the formation of states and their social and economic links. Some key theories regarding its political and economic structure are:

    Land Grants and Agrarian Organization

    The Role of Temples and Religious Grants

    Hierarchy and Organization of Territories

    Ritual and Economic Interconnections

    The integration of religious and economic functions in the Chola period demonstrates how ritual authority was intertwined with social and economic realities, impacting local governance and agricultural productivity.

    Sources

    Political History

    Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.)

    Rajendra I

    Kulathunga Chola I

    King and Administration in Chola Empire

    Religion in Chola Empire

    Society in Chola Empire

    Literature in Chola Empire

    Architecture in Chola Empire

    Brihadeswara Temple

    Chola Bronze Sculptures

    Timeline of Early Kingdoms in Southern India

    Kingdom Significant Details
    Three Early Kingdoms of Southern India

      Timeline- 3rd century BC

    • The southern end of the Indian peninsula was divided into three prominent kingdoms: Chola, Pandya, and Chera.
    • First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that the Pandyas kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
    • He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman, suggesting a matriarchal society.
    • All this suggests the society of the Pandya kingdom was matriarchal.
    • The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC.
    • The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.
    Cholas

    Timeline- 9th century BC to 13th century AD

    • Established significant political presence under King Karikala around 100 AD.
    • Capital: Uraiyur and later Puhar (Kaveripattanam).
    • Economy thrived on trade in cotton cloth and maintained an efficient navy.
    • Known for their architectural prowess, constructing magnificent temples.
    • Saw a flourishing of Tamil literature and culture.
    • Undertook ambitious maritime expeditions, reaching Southeast Asia.
    • Had a sophisticated legal system and emphasized justice and fair governance.
    Pandyas

    Timeline- 3rd century BC to 16th century AD

    • Occupied the southernmost and southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.
    • Mentioned in Sangam literature, suggesting wealth and prosperity.
    • Profited from trade with the Roman empire, known for trade in spices, ivory, pearls, and precious stones.
    • Formidable warriors with a well-trained army.
    • Patrons of the arts and literature, fostering a vibrant cultural environment.
    • Known for religious tolerance and infrastructure development.
    • Left a lasting legacy in South Indian history.
    Cheras

      Timeline- 3rd century BC to 12th century AD

      • Situated to the west and north of the Pandya territory, covering a portion of modern Kerala State.
      • Known for trade with the Romans and significant Roman presence at Muziris (Cranganore).
      • Notable ruler Senguttuvan, known as the Red Chera.
      • Traded spices, ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, and silk.
      • Played a crucial role in the maritime trade networks of the Indian Ocean.
      • Facilitated cultural exchange between India and foreign civilizations.
      • Experienced dynastic politics and succession disputes.
      • Left a lasting legacy in South Indian history.
    Cholas Additional Data

      Timeline- 9th to 13th centuries AD

      • The Chola Empire was an illustrious dynasty that thrived in South India.
      • Renowned for remarkable achievements in governance, art, architecture, and maritime trade.
      • Capital at Thanjavur; established a flourishing realm spanning South India to Southeast Asia.
      • Left indelible marks on the cultural and political landscape.
      • More than 10,000 inscriptions and a flourishing of Tamil literature during this period.
      • Saw political resurgence under Vijayalaya and expanded under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
      • Known for their naval expeditions, conquests, and architectural marvels like Brihadeswara Temple.
      • Had a sophisticated administrative structure, legal system, and cultural patronage.
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