history of the south, including the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas

Early Kingdoms of Southern India: Chola, Pandya, and Chera

• The southern end of the Indian peninsula was divided into three prominent kingdoms: Chola, Pandya, and Chera (also known as Kerala).
• The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
• He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman.
• All this sounds exaggerated but suggests that the Pandya society was matriarchal.
• The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC.
• The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.

Chola Kingdom: Territory, Trade, and Culture

• Territory: Cholamandalam or Coromandal, located northeast of the Pandya territory, between the Pennar and Velur rivers.
• Political History: Established a significant political presence under King Karikala around A.D. 100. Elara, a Chola king, conquered Sri Lanka in the middle of the second century B.C.
• Capital: Uraiyur, renowned for its cotton trade. Puhar (Kaveripattanam) served as the Chola capital, a bustling center of trade and commerce.
• Economy: Thrived on trade in cotton cloth, maintaining an efficient navy that sailed extensively, reaching as far as the Malaya archipelago.
• Decline: Under successors of Karikala, Chola power declined rapidly. Kaveripattanam, their capital, was overwhelmed and destroyed, leading to their marginalization in south Indian history from the fourth to the ninth century A.D.
• Architecture: Besides their military and economic achievements, the Cholas were known for their architectural prowess. They constructed magnificent temples adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures, showcasing their devotion to religion and art.
• Literature and Culture: The Chola period saw a flourishing of Tamil literature and culture. Poets like Ottakoothar and Kambar produced timeless literary works, and the Cholas patronized various art forms, including music and dance.
• Maritime Expeditions: Apart from trade, the Cholas undertook ambitious maritime expeditions. They are believed to have sent naval missions as far as Southeast Asia, asserting their dominance in the Indian Ocean trade network.
• Legal System: The Cholas had a sophisticated legal system, as evidenced by inscriptions detailing various laws and punishments. They emphasized justice and fair governance, contributing to social stability and order.

Pandya Dynasty: Trade, Society, and Achievements

• Territory: Occupied the southernmost and southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula, including modern districts of Tinnevelly, Ramnad, and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
• Society: Mentioned in Sangam literature, suggesting wealth and prosperity. Potentially matriarchal society. Enjoyed significant influence from Brahmanas.
• Trade: Profited from trade with the Roman empire, sending embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus. Known for trade in spices, ivory, pearls, and precious stones.
• Religion: Pandya kings performed Vedic sacrifices in the early centuries of the Christian era.
• Military Achievements: In addition to their economic prosperity, the Pandyas were formidable warriors. They maintained a well-trained army and often engaged in conflicts with neighboring kingdoms to safeguard their territory and interests.
• Cultural Patronage: The Pandya kings were patrons of the arts and literature. They sponsored the creation of literary works and commissioned grandiose temples, fostering a vibrant cultural environment in their kingdom.
• Religious Tolerance: Despite their own religious practices, the Pandyas were known for their tolerance towards other faiths. They encouraged the flourishing of diverse religious traditions, contributing to religious harmony and diversity in their realm.
• Infrastructure Development: The Pandyas invested in infrastructure projects, including the construction of irrigation systems and roads. These efforts aimed to enhance agricultural productivity and facilitate trade and transportation within their kingdom.

Chera Kingdom: Maritime Trade, Rulers, and Legacy

• Territory: Situated to the west and north of the Pandya territory, covering a portion of modern Kerala State.
• Importance: Known for trade with the Romans, with significant Roman presence at Muziris (Cranganore). Engaged in conflicts with Cholas and Pandyas.
• Rulers: Notable ruler Senguttuvan, known as the Red Chera, credited with routing rivals and establishing alliances. Decline observed after the second century A.D., with limited historical records until the eighth century A.D.
• Trade and Prosperity: Traded spices, ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, and silk. Actively engaged in trade with Greek kingdoms, the Malaya archipelago, and China. Witnessed a decline with the waning of Roman trade.
• Trade Networks: The Chera kingdom played a crucial role in the maritime trade networks of the Indian Ocean. They established lucrative trade relations with foreign powers, including the Roman empire, contributing to their economic prosperity.
• Cultural Exchange: Through trade and diplomatic interactions, the Cheras facilitated cultural exchange between India and foreign civilizations. They absorbed foreign influences while also disseminating Indian culture and knowledge to distant lands.
• Dynastic Politics: Like other kingdoms of the time, the Chera kingdom experienced dynastic rivalries and power struggles. Succession disputes and internal conflicts occasionally weakened the kingdom's stability and cohesion.
• Legacy: Despite their eventual decline, the Cheras left a lasting legacy in South Indian history. Their contributions to trade, culture, and governance continue to influence the region's socio-economic and cultural landscape.

Cholas Additional Data

Exploring the Chola Empire: Agrarian Systems, Political History, and Cultural Achievements

Structures of the Agrarian System in the Chola Kingdom

The Chola kingdom is a subject of extensive study regarding the formation of states and their social and economic links. Some key theories regarding its political and economic structure are:

• Segmentary State Theory: The model that suggests a dual sovereignty, where political control fades to ritual sovereignty in peripheral zones, was critiqued due to its oversimplified view of the Chola state's structure.
• Feudalism and Agrarian Change: The Chola kingdom's system has been linked to a feudal structure, with land grants playing a major role in the economy. The concept of feudalism is debated, but it provides insights into social and economic changes, especially regarding land and local governance.
• Revenue and Wealth: Chola wealth was not primarily from plunder but from a structured network of agricultural and commercial revenue collection.

Land Grants and Agrarian Organization in Chola Era

• Brahmadeya Grants: Lands granted to Brahmins (often wet lands) were cultivated with advanced knowledge of agriculture. These grants were accompanied by royal support and brought changes to local agricultural practices.
• Irrigation and Labour: Large irrigation projects were managed by local expertise and often required forced labour, with subservient groups like the landless peasants or lower castes working on these projects.
• Local Village Control: Villages had assemblies (sabhas) that controlled local production, irrigation, and land use. These assemblies worked with the heads of peasant families (velalas) and regulated hereditary rights.
• Commercial Networks: Merchants, particularly in agricultural products, were part of associations that spanned multiple territories, facilitating trade and linking local economies to broader commercial exchanges.

The Role of Temples and Religious Grants in the Chola Kingdom

• Temples as Political Entities: Temples were not merely religious institutions; they had significant control over agriculture and resources, contributing to the economic structure of the Chola kingdom.
• Control of Resources: The king's officers allocated temple resources and monitored temple accounts, linking religious power with economic and political control.
• Integration of Religious and Economic Functions: Temples became central to both ritual practices and the management of agricultural and commercial activities, as seen in the functioning of fairs, festivals, and agricultural management.

Hierarchy and Organization of Territories in Chola Administration

• Grouping of Villages: Villages were grouped into nadu, which were subdivided into smaller units like valanadu and mandalam. These units played a role in revenue collection, administration, and agricultural organization.
• Local Autonomy: Despite central control, villages exhibited a degree of autonomy, with local assemblies managing economic activities with minimal interference from higher authorities.

Ritual and Economic Interconnections within the Chola Dynasty

The integration of religious and economic functions in the Chola period demonstrates how ritual authority was intertwined with social and economic realities, impacting local governance and agricultural productivity.

• The Chola Empire, an illustrious and enduring dynasty that thrived in South India from the 9th to the 13th centuries, remains a paramount chapter in the history of the Indian subcontinent. Renowned for its remarkable achievements in governance, art, architecture, and maritime trade, the Chola Empire left an indelible mark on the cultural and political landscape of the region. With its capital at Thanjavur, the Chola rulers established a flourishing realm that spanned from the southern tip of the Indian peninsula to parts of Southeast Asia.
• This introduction serves as a gateway to explore the fascinating history, remarkable accomplishments, and enduring legacy of the Chola Empire, a civilization that continues to captivate the imagination and curiosity of historians, scholars, and enthusiasts alike.

Sources for Chola History: Inscriptions and Literature

• More than 10,000 inscriptions were engraved on copper and stone.
• Literary sources, such as Tamil literature flourished during this period.

Political History of the Chola Empire: From Subordinates to Rulers

• Cholas remained subordinates to Pallavas after the Sangam Age.
• Re-emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya (850-871 CE).
• Parantaka I (907-955) broadened the base of Chola governance.
• Parantaka I suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas.

Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.): Naval Expeditions and Temple Building

• Engaged in naval expeditions and conquered the West Coast, Sri Lanka, and Maldives.
• Direct control of Chola authority over northern and eastern Sri Lanka.
• Defeated Cheras in the battle of Kandanur Salai.
• Successful expedition against Western and Eastern Chalukyas.
• Completed the construction of Rajarajeswara temple.
• Abdicated his throne for his son Rajendra Chola I.

Rajendra I: Expansion into Northern India and Southeast Asia

• Conducted a successful expedition to northern India.
• Defeated Mahipala I of Bengal.
• Founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple.
• Naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya (Indonesia).
• Annexed total Sri Lanka.
• Established educational institutes in his empire.

Kulathunga Chola I: Tax Reforms and Trade with China

• Abolished many taxes.
• Sent trade embassies to China.
• United the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.
• Contemporary to Ramanujacharya.

King and Administration in the Chola Empire

• The Chola Empire was ruled by an emperor or king who had all the authority in his hands. The king often went on tours to keep in touch with the administration. Brahmins were appointed as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus, and huge estates of land were granted to them as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams. The provinces were divided into mandalams, valanadus, and nadus, and each nadu had several autonomous villages. The military administration was managed by a large army consisting of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. The revenue administration was managed through extensive land surveys and revenue settlements. Local administration was managed by two types of villages, and various taxes and dues were levied on goods and ceremonies.

Religion in the Chola Empire: Saivism and Vaishnavism

• The Chola rulers were ardent Saivites, and Shiva was the preeminent god for them. Saiva Siddhanta was a highly evolved philosophical system founded during this period. However, there were serious clashes between Shaivites and Vaishnavites. Kulathunga Chola was an ardent Shaivite who persecuted Vaishnavites, leading Bhakti saint Ramnujacharya to leave Srirangam and settle in Melkote, Karnataka.

Society in the Chola Empire: Caste System and Social Practices

• During the Chola period, Aryanisation was consolidated, and the Sanskritisation process started. The caste system was widely prevalent, and Chola society witnessed a division of caste into “Idangai” and “Vadangai.” The practice of sati became sacred, and a new social evil called the Devadasi system came into practice.

Literary Achievements in the Chola Empire: Tamil and Sanskrit Flourishing

• Tamil and Sanskrit literature flourished during the Chola period, and Tamil literature witnessed a golden age. Some notable Tamil literary works include Kamban Ramayan by Kamban, Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar, Kalladam by Kalladanar, and Nalavenba by Pugalendi. Kesava swami composed the Sanskrit work Nannaranava Samkshevam.

Architectural Marvels of the Chola Empire: Dravidian Temple Art

• Chola art saw the culmination of Dravida temple art, resulting in the construction of the most sophisticated buildings. Cholas followed the architectural style of the Pallavas, adding greater refinement and mostly involving the construction of temples in the Dravidian style. Stone was used instead of bricks for its greater durability. The temples had intricate frescos, including birds, dancing figurines, and other pictorial stories from Puranas. Some temples have portraits of the Kings and queens themselves. The temples were covered with exquisite well-composed sculptures and frescoes. The presence of water tanks was a unique feature of Chola architecture. Examples include Brihadeswara and Vijayalaya temples and the most memorable figures built during the Chola period were the Ganas. Yazhi, a recurring pattern of the sculpted mythical animals, was also a unique feature, and the Dvarpalas at the entrance of the mandap became a unique feature.

Brihadeswara Temple: A Pinnacle of Chola Architecture

• The Grand Temple of Tanjavur, known as Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as an outstanding example of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture, and iconography.
• Built by RajaRaja Chola.
• It has shadowless vimana.
• The sanctum with a vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone weighing 80 tons.
• The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhanarisvara, and Bikshadana, a mendicant form of Siva, on the outer walls of the sanctum are some unique features.
• The fresco paintings and the miniature sculptures of the scenes from Puranas and epics in the temple walls reveal the religious ideology of the Chola rulers.

Chola Bronze Sculptures: Lost-Wax Process and Shiva Nataraja

• The cire-perdu or ‘lost-wax’ process for casting was learned as long ago as the Indus Valley Culture. Discovery of bronze alloy made by mixing copper, zinc, and tin.
• South India developed bronze casting and making of traditional icons during the medieval period.
• Chola bronzes are highly sought-after by art lovers worldwide.
• Shiva Nataraja’s figure evolved and developed during the Chola Period, with many variations since.
• The Thanjavur region in Tamil Nadu evolved a wide range of Shiva iconography, including a remarkable Kalyana Sundara murti from the 9th century depicting the marriage ceremony.
• In Ardhanarisvara Murti, the union of Shiva and Parvati is represented in a single image.
• Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati are also modeled, standing in graceful tribhanga posture.

Chronological Timeline of Early Kingdoms in Southern India: Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras

Kingdom	Significant Details
Three Early Kingdoms of Southern India	Timeline - 3rd century BC: Emergence of Southern Kingdoms The southern end of the Indian peninsula was divided into three prominent kingdoms: Chola, Pandya, and Chera. First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that the Pandyas kingdom was celebrated for pearls. He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman, suggesting a matriarchal society. All this suggests the society of the Pandya kingdom was matriarchal. The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC. The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.
Cholas	Timeline - 9th century BC to 13th century AD: Chola Dynasty Rise and Rule Established significant political presence under King Karikala around 100 AD. Capital: Uraiyur and later Puhar (Kaveripattanam). Economy thrived on trade in cotton cloth and maintained an efficient navy. Known for their architectural prowess, constructing magnificent temples. Saw a flourishing of Tamil literature and culture. Undertook ambitious maritime expeditions, reaching Southeast Asia. Had a sophisticated legal system and emphasized justice and fair governance.
Pandyas	Timeline - 3rd century BC to 16th century AD: Pandya Kingdom Trade and Culture Occupied the southernmost and southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula. Mentioned in Sangam literature, suggesting wealth and prosperity. Profited from trade with the Roman empire, known for trade in spices, ivory, pearls, and precious stones. Formidable warriors with a well-trained army. Patrons of the arts and literature, fostering a vibrant cultural environment. Known for religious tolerance and infrastructure development. Left a lasting legacy in South Indian history.
Cheras	Timeline - 3rd century BC to 12th century AD: Chera Maritime Trade and Influence Situated to the west and north of the Pandya territory, covering a portion of modern Kerala State. Known for trade with the Romans and significant Roman presence at Muziris (Cranganore). Notable ruler Senguttuvan, known as the Red Chera. Traded spices, ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, and silk. Played a crucial role in the maritime trade networks of the Indian Ocean. Facilitated cultural exchange between India and foreign civilizations. Experienced dynastic politics and succession disputes. Left a lasting legacy in South Indian history.
Cholas Additional Data	Timeline - 9th to 13th centuries AD: Chola Empire Governance and Achievements The Chola Empire was an illustrious dynasty that thrived in South India. Renowned for remarkable achievements in governance, art, architecture, and maritime trade. Capital at Thanjavur; established a flourishing realm spanning South India to Southeast Asia. Left indelible marks on the cultural and political landscape. More than 10,000 inscriptions and a flourishing of Tamil literature during this period. Saw political resurgence under Vijayalaya and expanded under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. Known for their naval expeditions, conquests, and architectural marvels like Brihadeswara Temple. Had a sophisticated administrative structure, legal system, and cultural patronage.