Explore the UN's role in climate change, including UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, and CBD. Learn about global efforts, biodiversity themes, and the North-South debate.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• The United Nations and Its Role

  On the globe, you will find one and only international organisation which promotes peace, security, social progress, better living standards and human rights. Can you guess the name of that organisation? Yes, you are correct, that is the United Nations. The United Nations is an international organization founded with 51 membership countries in 1945, having headquarters at New York, USA, now increased to 193 Member States. The UN is playing a key role in international environmental issues and climate change.

  We know that the changes in Earth’s climate is a fallout of global warming which has happened due to a few natural causes in general but a lot of anthropogenic activities in particular. Release of toxic greenhouse gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere from industrial and vehicular emissions and aerosols could trap the outgoing heat and raise air temperatures near the ground leading to global warming. You have understood about GHGs and global warming elaborately in the previous unit.

• IPCC Warning and Global Warming Effects

  The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the UN has warned that the increasing levels of global warming are mostly due to human activities of the past five decades. The world is now experiencing the effects of global warming in the form of rising sea levels, decrease in snow cover, moving ice sheets, changing rainfall patterns, and occurrence of extreme weather events in many areas across the globe.

• UN Efforts to Tackle Global Warming

  The UN opines that the GHG emissions must be reduced to prevent global warming and arrest the climate change impact on the environment. Do you think this is possible only with one country or a region? No, it must be the cumulative efforts of all the nations of the planet Earth. Reducing emissions of GHGs depends on the actions of various countries of the world, but it is not in the hands of a particular region or country.

  The World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) started the World Climate Programme to tackle climate change problems in 1979. This was slowly led to the formation of IPCC in 1988 to assess the magnitude and timing of changes, estimate their impacts, and evaluate management strategies. You will understand how the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) came into existence and is playing a significant role in addressing the above problems.

The Objective and Principles of UNFCCC

• Objective of UNFCCC

  Let us first understand the objective and principles of UNFCCC and how it is really a matter of global concern. Initially, a total of 154 States Members of the world met in 1992, at the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and signed this Convention. The countries ratified the Convention and agreed upon reducing their greenhouse gas emissions.

  The main objective of the Convention is to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.” Keeping in consideration of the food production and economic development in a sustainable manner, such a level should be achieved within a time-line. The ecosystems must be allowed to adapt naturally to climate change. It may be essential to think of the bearable limits of emissions by the atmosphere. This framework convention is a legally binding treaty aimed at lowering the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases.

  You will be astonished to know that once CO2 is emitted, it stays nearly 100 years and more time in the climate system. The treaty was expected to come into operation immediately. The developed countries should lead, and the developing countries should be compensated for costs incurred for taking necessary measures for controlling climatic change. Governments should submit reports on their activities and meet regularly to review progress.

• Principles of UNFCCC

  To do this more effectively, the UNFCCC had adopted some principles. These important principles of the Convention are made to protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of mankind (UNFCCC Handbook, 2006).

  • The principles of equity and of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. It stresses the developed countries to take the lead in combating climate change and the adverse effects thereof.
  • The full consideration must be given for the specific needs and special circumstances of developing countries, especially those that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.
  • The precautionary measures are utmost priority for reducing climate change and its adverse effects through cost-effective interventions.
  • The Parties should promote sustainable development policies and measures to protect the climate system integrating with the national development programmes.
  • It upholds the principle of free trade, calling on the Parties to promote a “supportive and open international economic system that would lead to sustainable economic growth and sustainable development, thus enabling them better to address the problems of climate change.”

Administrative Setup of UNFCCC

We now study briefly the working administration of UNFCCC. The Convention has established several institutions to work within the framework. These are the Conference of the Parties to the Convention (COP), the subsidiary bodies (SBs), the Bureau and the Secretariat.

• Conference of the Parties to the Convention (COP)

  COP is the “supreme body” of the Convention and is responsible for reviewing and making decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention.

• Subsidiary Bodies (SBs)

  Subsidiary bodies—namely the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI)—are designated as advisory bodies to the COP. Each have a Bureau which consists of a Chair, a Vice-Chair and a Rapporteur. These SBs conduct the sessions on climate change processes and recommend draft decisions to the COP for taking final decisions.

• Important Conventions Held After the Rio Earth Summit

  We now discuss some of the important conventions held after the Rio Earth Summit to know the initiatives taken to address the issues of climate change. Table provided below explains broadly about the details of the Convention.

Convention Session	Location of Meeting/Year	Discussion/Outcome
COP 1	Berlin, Germany/1995	“Berlin Mandate” talks on additional commitments of industrialized countries.
COP 2	Geneva, Switzerland/1996	Cost-effective steps, consistent with sustainable development and designed to provide “no regrets” safeguards against food security, social justice and the wealth of nations.
COP 3	Kyoto, Japan/1997	“Kyoto Protocol” sets individual, legally binding targets for industrialized countries prepared to take positive steps to curb emissions of carbon dioxide and other GHGs from sources within their remit.
COP 4	Buenos Aires, Argentina/1998	Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA)—a set of practical rules agreed.
COP 5	Bonn, Germany/1999	The agenda of BAPA discussed. The draft guidelines for the technical review process related to greenhouse gas inventories.
COP 6	Bonn, Germany/2001	“Bonn Agreements” on emissions trading system; Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) rules for accounting for emissions reductions from carbon “sinks” and compliance regime. Financial and technological support to help developing countries, etc.
COP 7	Marrakesh, Morocco/2001	“Marrakesh Accords” Adopted decisions on COP 6.
COP 8	New Delhi, India/2002	“Delhi Ministerial Declaration” on Climate Change and Sustainable Development as well as the New Delhi Work Programme on Education, Training and Public Awareness. It is related to implementation of the Marrakesh Accords and Convention issues.
COP 9	Milan, Italy/2003	Decisions on afforestation and reforestation activities under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
COP 10	Buenos Aires, Argentina/2004	Work on adaptation and response measures.
COP 11 (COP 11 CMP 1)	Montreal, Canada/2005	The first Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP 1). CMP refers to the decisions taken by COP/MOP. The Kyoto Protocol came into force. It is an important political breakthrough being the decision by Parties to start a dialogue on strategic long-term cooperative action.
COP 12/CMP 2	Nairobi, Kenya/2006	Plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries support for developing countries and clean development mechanism.
COP 13/CMP 3	Bali, Indonesia/2007	The adoption of the Bali Action Plan: Post-2012 framework due to the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol.
COP 14/CMP 4	Poznan, Poland/2008	Principles for the financing of a fund to help the poorest nations and mechanism to incorporate forest protection into the efforts of the international community to combat climate change.
COP 15/CMP 5	Copenhagen, Denmark/2009	Discussed long-term options on climate financing.
COP 16/CMP 6	Cancun, Mexico/2010	Agreement adopted for creation of US$100 billion per year to "Green Climate Fund (GCF)", and a "Climate Technology Centre" and network. The goal of global warming limit to below 2ºC and all parties should take urgent action to meet this goal.
COP 17/CMP 7	Durban, South Africa/2011	Progress on Green Climate Fund (GCF) to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts.
COP 18/CMP 8	Doha, Qatar/2012	The Doha Climate Gateway: The Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol. Second commitment (2012-2020) limited in scope to 15% of the global CO2 emissions due to the lack of commitments from Japan, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, New Zealand (USA and Canada were not Parties to the Protocol) and due to the fact that developing countries like China (the world’s largest emitter), India and Brazil are not subject to emissions reductions under the Kyoto Protocol.
COP 19/CMP 9	Warsaw, Poland/2013	Decides to continue the Nairobi Work Programme on impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation to climate change by considering ecosystems, human settlements, water resources, and health.
COP 20/CMP 10	Lima, Peru/2014	General guidelines for domestic measurement, reporting and verification of domestically supported nationally appropriate mitigation actions by developing country Parties which are purely voluntary, pragmatic, non-prescriptive, and non-intrusive, promoting a cost-effective approach. ‘Lima Call For Climate Action’: the foundations for a new global climate deal. Lima work programme on gender and its gender action plan promotes gender equality and women’s empowerment in the UNFCCC process, encouraging Parties to advance its implementation.
COP 21/CMP 11	Paris, France/2015	The Paris Agreement: governing climate change reduction measures from 2020.
COP 22/CMP 12/CMA 1	Marrakech, Morocco/2016	Water scarcity, water cleanliness, and water-related sustainability are recognized as major problems in the developing world and many African nations. Discussed the need of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and utilization of low-carbon energy sources.
COP 23/CMP 13/CMA 2	Bonn, Germany/2017	Total of 197 Parties achieved important progress on implementing the Paris Agreement.
COP 24/CMP 14/CMA 3	Katowice, Poland/2018	Scale up the mobilization of climate finance, including through greater engagement of the private sector, to increase finance for adaptation, and to align financial flows with the objectives of the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals; Established Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform Facilitative Working Group.
COP 25/CMP 15/CMA 4	Madrid, Spain/2019	Started process of collecting greenhouse gases information from all Parties. Enhanced the time period for Lima work programme on gender and its gender action plan to achieve and sustain the full, equal and meaningful participation of women in the UNFCCC process.

The Kyoto Protocol

• Legal Commitments and Implementation

  Under the Kyoto Protocol, the Parties are legally bound by specific commitments on GHG reduction. In December 1997, COP 3 held at Kyoto, Japan, adopted the Protocol unanimously, and it came into force on 16th February 2005. The industrialized countries agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to an average of 5.2% below the 1990 levels during the five-year commitment period from 2008 to 2012.

  Key issues addressed by the Kyoto Protocol include:

  • Identification of acceptable means of solutions for greenhouse gas reductions

  • Agreement on an accounting system that gives nations credit for their reductions

  • Agreement on penalties for lack of full compliance with agreed-upon reductions

  The Protocol also provides for a comprehensive inclusion of GHGs and sources. A basket of four important gases and two groups of gases are addressed under the Kyoto Protocol:

  • Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
  • Methane (CH₄)
  • Nitrous oxide (N₂O)
  • Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
  • Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
  • Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆)

  Additionally, the Protocol introduced flexibility mechanisms such as land use changes and forest activities (e.g., afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation), allowing countries to meet a portion of their commitments by earning credits for GHG emissions avoided or removed in other countries. It also allowed grouping of Parties, such as the European Union, to be considered jointly for emission counting.

• The Progress and Implications of Kyoto Protocol

  The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 marked the beginning of global cooperation on climate change. It aimed to fulfill the commitments made in 1992 during the UN Earth Summit, focusing on stabilizing GHGs to prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.

  However, two major issues emerged:

  • The goal was modest—only a 5.2% reduction in emissions from 1990 levels by 2012 for industrialized nations.
  • There was strong resistance from many countries in addressing global warming meaningfully.

  The Protocol required ratification by countries representing 55% of CO₂ emissions in the developed world. It took seven years post-signing to enact. Australia ratified in 2008, Kazakhstan in 2009. The United States, responsible for ~25% of global emissions despite less than 5% of the global population, did not ratify the Protocol.

  Progress was unsatisfactory:

  • No formal rules or interlinked decision-making structures were framed.
  • CO₂ emissions have continued to rise globally, overshooting targets.
  • No country has effectively reduced emissions to pre-industrial levels.

  Some progress was made by countries like:

  • Sweden: Introduced a strong carbon tax. Between 1990 and 2005, its economy grew by 44%, while emissions dropped by 9%.
  • Germany: Led in micro-generation using renewable energy with feed-in-tariffs subsidized for 20 years.

  Developing countries faced a dilemma: while most vulnerable to climate change, they are urged to restrict economic growth to reduce emissions.

  At the UN Climate Summit in Copenhagen, December 2009, a non-binding accord drafted by the US, China, Brazil, India, and South Africa aimed to cap temperature rise at 2°C above pre-industrial levels, but lacked concrete implementation strategies.

• Key Inferences on Global Warming

  • The threat of global climate change to human and natural systems is unparalleled in recorded history.
  • Decisions made in the near term will substantially affect the timing and severity of global warming.
  • Technologies to mitigate climate change already exist or will soon exist, but lack wide dissemination.

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)

• Impact of Climate Change and Context of UNCBD

  Climate change not only affects human development but also significantly impacts plant and animal species. It can lead to habitat shifts, changes in species life cycles, and in extreme cases, extinction. Rising temperatures and low rainfall contribute to drylands turning into deserts. The Rio Conventions—UNFCCC, UNCCD, and UNCBD—collaborate on climate adaptation, desertification control, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development.

  Initiated by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1987, the foundation for an internationally binding agreement on biodiversity was laid. On 5th June 1992, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) was opened for signature during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. It came into force on 29 December 1993, and now has a membership of 188 countries.

• The Objective and Principles of UNCBD

  The CBD is a legally binding treaty with three main objectives:

  • Conservation of biological diversity
  • Sustainable use of biodiversity components
  • Equitable sharing of benefits from the use of genetic resources

  The principle emphasizes that States have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources under their environmental policies, while also bearing the responsibility to prevent environmental harm beyond national borders (CBD Handbook, 2005).

  Parties are expected to design and report activities supporting climate adaptation based on national and local needs.

• Administrative Setup of UNCBD

  The UNCBD operates through three core institutions:

  • Conference of the Parties (COP): The main governing body reviewing and guiding the Convention’s progress.
  • Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA): Provides recommendations and technical input to COP.
  • The Secretariat: Offers administrative support to COP and SBSTTA, and coordinates with other conventions. It is hosted by UNEP in Montreal, Canada.

  These bodies oversee measures such as in situ and ex situ conservation, research and training, public awareness, impact assessments, access to genetic resources, technology transfer, and financial resource allocation.

  Two important protocols under the Convention are described below:

• The Cartagena Protocol

  Adopted on 29 January 2000 in Montreal, Canada, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety governs the movement of living modified organisms (LMOs) across borders.

  Its goal is to ensure safe handling and use of LMOs that may affect biodiversity and human health, especially in the context of trans-boundary movement (CBD Handbook, 2005).

• The Nagoya Protocol

  Adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, the Nagoya Protocol focuses on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from their use.

  Key benefits of this Protocol include:

  • Collaboration and contribution in scientific and biotechnological research
  • Institutional capacity-building and technology transfer
  • Training with the full involvement of resource-providing countries
  • Access to relevant scientific information including biological inventories and taxonomic data
  • Research related to health and food security considering domestic resource use
  • Support to the local economy and improved food and livelihood security

Themes of CBD Programme

1. Agro-Biodiversity

• Definition and Scope

  Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources contributed significantly under the Convention. FAO defines agro-biodiversity as “The variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture...”

  According to the FAO, 90% of our food, energy, and protein today comes from only 15 plants and 8 animal species, with wheat, rice, and maize providing over 50% of the global plant-based energy intake.

• Components and Functions

  • Agricultural biodiversity includes all components of biological diversity related to food, agriculture, and agro-ecosystems.
  • It encompasses positive effects from genetic resources like crops, trees, pasture species, domesticated and wild animals, fish, and aquatic organisms.
  • Includes microbial and fungal genetic resources, pest control, pollination, nutrient cycling, sedimentation, erosion, and climate-related functions.
  • Socio-economic and cultural aspects are also integral as many livelihoods depend on agriculture.

• Environmental Impact and Challenges

  • Agricultural biodiversity results from interaction among genetic resources, the environment, and farming systems.
  • Population growth and evolving production-consumption patterns increase demand and lead to intensive agriculture that harms biodiversity.
  • Despite modern agriculture’s role in food security, it causes land-use change, climate change, overgrazing, and overuse of resources.
  • Biodiversity is crucial to agriculture, having evolved through thousands of years of human intervention.
  • Conservation and adaptive strategies are essential for sustainable agro-biodiversity management.

2. Biodiversity of the Dry and Sub-Humid Land

• Overview and Unique Adaptations

  This theme is a joint initiative by the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification.

  Dry and sub-humid lands include arid/semi-arid regions, grasslands, savannahs, and Mediterranean landscapes. Their biodiversity is highly adapted to harsh environments.

  • Gemsbok, an antelope of the Kalahari desert, survives for weeks without water.
  • Sociable weaver, a small bird, constructs massive communal nests for thermal insulation.
  • Many desert toads burrow and stay dormant until rains arrive.
  • Wheat, barley, and olives originated here and are vital to food security.

• Global Recognition and Human Development

  In 2006, the UN declared the International Year for Deserts and Desertification to highlight its role in poverty eradication and sustainable development.

  Infant mortality in these regions stands at 54 per 1,000 live births, twice the rate of temperate areas, underlining the development urgency.

  This biodiversity supports the livelihood of millions and contributes to global food production.

• Threats and Conservation Needs

  • 2,311 known species in dry and sub-humid lands are endangered.
  • Conversion to croplands and infrastructure development leads to environmental degradation.
  • Overgrazing, trampling, and biomass removal by livestock and wildlife exert pressure on ecosystems.
  • Climate change alters temperature and rainfall, impacting biodiversity.
  • Invasive alien species and exotic crops disrupt native ecosystems.
  • Water scarcity, frequent fires, and soil erosion degrade biodiversity further.
  • Overharvesting, fuel wood collection, and wildlife hunting remain major concerns.

3. Biodiversity of the Forests

• Definition and Ecological Roles

  Forest biodiversity includes all life forms and their interactive roles within forested areas. This includes trees, plants, animals, and microorganisms along with their genetic diversity.

  “Forest biological diversity results from evolutionary processes driven by ecological forces such as climate, fire, and competition over thousands or millions of years.”

  FAO estimates that we lose nearly 13 million hectares of forest annually due to deforestation, fragmentation, and degradation.

• Major Threats to Forest Biodiversity

  • Human activities such as shifting cultivation, conversion to agricultural land, overgrazing, and poor forest management.
  • Introduction of invasive species, development projects, mining, forest fires, and climate change also degrade forest ecosystems.

• Functions and Importance

  • Tropical, temperate, and boreal forests support livelihoods, especially for indigenous communities.
  • They offer timber, non-timber resources, and play a role in climate mitigation and carbon sequestration.
  • Assessment of climate change effects is essential because forests act as carbon sinks.

4. Biodiversity of the Inland Water Bodies

• Definition and Scope

  Inland waters include lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, springs, groundwater, bogs, marshes, and swamps—fresh, saline, or brackish.

  The Ramsar Convention defines wetlands as "areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water... where water is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salty."

• Ecosystem Services

  • Inland water biodiversity provides food security, flood control, nutrient recycling, and climate regulation.
  • Groundwater recharge and dependency on surface water make wetland ecosystems crucial for humans.

• Climate Change and Vulnerability

  • Sea-level rise leads to erosion, increased salinity in estuaries and aquifers, and habitat vulnerability.
  • Mitigating wetland pressure is vital—especially for mangroves and river floodplains—to counter extreme weather events like floods, cyclones, and tsunamis.

5. Island Biodiversity

• Geographic and Biological Uniqueness

  Islands are land masses surrounded by water, ranging in size from 0.15 km² to 2.2 million km² (Greenland). Their isolation fosters specialized species with adaptations like gigantism, dwarfism, flightlessness, and loss of dispersal traits.

  Islands hold evolutionary significance and act as reservoirs of genetic diversity.

• Cultural and Economic Importance

  • Islands are home to one-tenth of the global population who follow unique cultures and rely on local biodiversity for well-being.
  • Island biodiversity is particularly fragile and vulnerable.

• Extinctions and Global Action

  • Over half of the 724 recorded animal extinctions in the last 400 years occurred on islands.
  • The Barbados Programme of Action identifies island ecosystems as "among the most threatened in the world" due to invasive species, tourism expansion, climate change, overexploitation, and waste disposal.

6. Marine and Coastal Biodiversity

• Definition and Scope

  The majority of Earth's surface is occupied by oceans, which harbour 95% of the biosphere. Marine and coastal biodiversity includes coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass meadows, estuaries, seamounts, and soft/rocky bottoms.

  Millions of people depend on marine fish and invertebrates for their food sources.

• Marine Research and Discoveries

  • New species are continuously being discovered in the ocean, with estimates ranging from 500,000 to 10 million marine species.
  • There is significant interest in the ocean's potential for genetic resources and valuable commercial uses.

• Major Threats to Marine and Coastal Ecosystems

  • Overfishing, land-based pollution, eutrophication, and illegal fishing pose significant threats.
  • Alteration of mangroves and wetlands, along with the impacts of climate change, threaten the physical habitats of marine species.
  • For more detailed information on coastal areas, refer to Block 2.

7. Mountain Biodiversity

• Mountain Ecosystem Assessment

  The UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre and UNEP’s Mountain Programme have developed a systematic assessment of mountain ecosystems, utilizing Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis of global data.

  Nearly 27% of the world's land surface is occupied by mountains, providing fresh water to numerous species, including humans.

• Impact of Climate Change

  • Mountain biodiversity at high altitudes is particularly vulnerable to the environmental effects of climate change.
  • For more detailed information on mountain ecosystems, refer to Block 2.

• Key Characteristics of Mountain Biodiversity

  • Human intervention in land use, deforestation, tourism, over-exploitation of natural resources, and grazing pressures significantly affect mountain biodiversity.
  • Local populations have adapted to the climatic conditions of the mountains, cultivating thousands of plant varieties and breeding animal species for livelihood.
  • Mountains are often considered sacred by indigenous people, highlighting the cultural significance of these areas. It is essential to assess the socio-economic, cultural, and environmental costs and benefits in mountain biodiversity studies.
  • Understanding traditional ecological knowledge of local communities is crucial for effective ecosystem management in mountain areas.

FOREST PRINCIPLES

• Summary

  At the Rio Earth Summit, State Members of the world negotiated and announced the Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation, and Sustainable Development of all Types of Forests. These principles are commonly referred to as the “Forest Principles”.

  The main purpose of these principles is to strengthen political commitment and action at national and international levels for the effective implementation of sustainable forest management.

  You can learn more about forestry by visiting the website: FAO Forestry and explore the references section for additional links.

• Key Features of the Forest Principles

  • State Responsibility: States should voluntarily participate and take responsibility for the sustainable management of their forests and enforce forest-related laws.
  • Inclusive Participation: Indigenous people, local communities, forest owners, and other stakeholders should contribute to sustainable forest management through transparent and participatory processes as per national legislation.
  • International Cooperation: Financial support, technology transfer, capacity-building, and education play crucial roles in supporting global efforts for sustainable forest management.

• Global Objectives to Achieve Forest Sustainability

  • Reverse forest loss: Efforts should focus on sustainable forest management, protection, restoration, afforestation, and reforestation to reverse global deforestation.
  • Enhance forest-based benefits: Promote economic, social, and environmental benefits of forests, improving livelihoods for forest-dependent people.
  • Increase protected forest areas: Significantly increase the area of protected forests and sustainably managed forests globally, as well as the proportion of forest products.
  • Financial resources: Reverse the decline in official development assistance for sustainable forest management and mobilize new and additional financial resources from all sources.

• Importance of the Forest Principles

  The United Nations emphasizes that the Forest Principles will help maintain and enhance the economic, social, and environmental values of all types of forests, benefiting present and future generations.

THE NORTH-SOUTH DEBATE

• North-South Confrontation

  During the Rio Earth Summit, several State Parties raised a confrontation on various environmental issues, particularly regarding the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), global warming, and ozone depletion. A major conflict emerged between developed and developing countries regarding responsibility for environmental damage and who should pay for its repair.

  The UNFCCC stated that developed nations (referred to as the 'North') are primarily responsible for producing nearly 70% of total GHG emissions, and thus, they must lead efforts to reduce emissions, as argued by the 'South'.

  In the global North, countries like Australia and New Zealand were included, while China was included in the global South.

• Effects of Climate Change

  • Global warming caused by increased emissions of GHGs, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons, has led to rising sea levels and extreme weather events like floods, cyclones, and habitat loss.
  • The European Community and Japan pledged to limit their CO2 emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000, while Germany declared a 25-30% reduction by 2005.
  • Many nations wanted a 20% cut in emissions, but developing nations (the South) were reluctant to reduce their emissions as it could hinder their economic development.

• Strategies for Addressing Climate Change

  • Research and development: Large-scale research on global warming and its potential impacts is essential to obtain authenticated results.
  • Energy consumption and fossil fuels: Estimating energy consumption and fossil fuel use, particularly in the North and South, is crucial at the global level.
  • Renewable energy technologies: Innovative technologies for optimizing the use of renewable resources, such as solar and wind, should be explored to reduce fossil fuel consumption.
  • Sustainable investment: Investment opportunities in the South should be explored through technological advancements in a sustainable manner. Additionally, efforts should focus on establishing binding compensation mechanisms, such as the pollution-pay principle.
  • Technology sharing and financial support: Sharing technologies, collecting carbon taxes, providing financial assistance to vulnerable countries, and jointly implementing carbon reduction projects are key actions to address climate change.