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Air Pollution and Its Control

Impact of Air Pollution: Harms living organisms, reduces crop yields, and causes respiratory issues. Major sources include smokestacks from thermal power plants and industries. Control measures include electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers.

Controlling Vehicular Air Pollution: A Case Study of Delhi

Delhi faced high air pollution levels due to its large number of vehicles. Solutions included switching public transport to CNG, phasing out old vehicles, and using unleaded petrol and low-sulphur fuels, leading to improved air quality.

Water Pollution and Its Control

Impact of Water Pollution: Affects all life forms dependent on water bodies. Legislation such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 aims to safeguard water resources.

Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents

Domestic sewage contains biodegradable organic matter and toxic substances, reducing dissolved oxygen in water bodies. Industrial effluents contain toxic substances that undergo biomagnification. Eutrophication accelerates the aging of lakes.

A Case Study of Integrated Waste Water Treatment

Arcata, California, uses artificial and natural processes for wastewater treatment, including sedimentation, filtration, and natural purification through marshes. Ecological sanitation involves dry composting toilets that turn excreta into natural fertilizer.

Solid Wastes

Solid wastes include trash from homes, offices, and institutions. Proper disposal and reduction techniques are essential for managing municipal solid waste.

Additional Topics

Other topics mentioned include agro-chemicals and their effects, radioactive wastes, greenhouse effect and global warming, ozone depletion, degradation by improper resource utilization, and deforestation.

Air Pollution and Its Control

Impact of Air Pollution: Harms living organisms, reduces crop yields, and causes respiratory issues. Major sources include smokestacks from thermal power plants and industries. Control measures include electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers.

Water Pollution and Its Control

Impact of Water Pollution: Affects all life forms dependent on water bodies. Legislation such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 aims to safeguard water resources.

Solid Wastes

Solid waste management is crucial to prevent environmental contamination and health hazards. Solid wastes come from various sources including households, industries, and hospitals.

Agro-chemicals and Their Effects

The extensive use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers in agriculture has led to soil degradation, water contamination, and health issues due to biomagnification. Sustainable practices include integrated organic farming to reduce the need for chemical inputs.

Radioactive Wastes

Radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants and other sources are highly hazardous due to their long-lasting radiation, which can cause mutations, cancer, and other health issues. Safe disposal methods include storing pre-treated waste in shielded containers buried deep within the earth's crust.

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. Human activities have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide and methane, leading to global warming and climate change. Mitigation strategies include reducing GHG emissions through cleaner energy sources and reforestation.

Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere

The depletion of the ozone layer, primarily due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), leads to increased ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the Earth's surface, causing skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to ecosystems. The Montreal Protocol aims to phase out the production and use of ozone-depleting substances.

Degradation by Improper Resource Utilization and Maintenance

Improper use and maintenance of natural resources lead to environmental degradation, including over-extraction of resources, deforestation, and soil erosion. Sustainable practices involve proper resource management and conservation efforts.

Deforestation

Deforestation, the large-scale removal of forests, leads to loss of biodiversity, disruption of water cycles, and contributes to climate change. Control measures include reforestation, afforestation, and sustainable forestry practices.

Protocols and Conventions

Montreal Protocol Year: 1987 Effective Year: 1989 Purpose: Control the emission of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) Notable Details: It provides roadmaps for reducing the emission of CFCs and other ODS for both developed and developing countries.

Committees and Commissions

US National Emergency Management Association (NEMA) Twelve Elements of Preparedness: Laws and Authorities Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Hazard Mitigation Resource Management Direction, Control, and Coordination Communication and Warning Operations and Procedures Logistics and Facilities Training Exercise, Evaluation, and Corrective Actions Crisis Communication, Education, and Information Finance and Administration

US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Definition of Preparedness: Leadership, training, readiness, exercise support, and technical and financial assistance for disaster preparation, mitigation, response, and recovery.

Key Concepts and Phases in Disaster Management

Mitigation Structural Mitigation: Physical construction changes (e.g., building codes, earthquake-proof homes) Non-structural Mitigation: Policies and practices (e.g., public education, insurance, planning)

Preparedness Focus Areas: Communication plans Supply maintenance Emergency services availability Multi-agency coordination Early warning systems Training and evaluation plans

Key Factors in Vulnerability and Coping Capacity Physical Factors: Settlement patterns, building structures, land use Social Factors: Education, training, information availability, social cohesion Infrastructural Factors: Land use planning, housing design, access to roads Environmental Factors: Natural resource management, pollution, biodiversity loss

Organizations and Approaches International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCRCS): Perspective on Disaster Preparedness: A continuous and integrated process involving a wide range of activities and resources from multi-sectoral sources. Disaster Risk Management vs. Disaster Management: Traditional Focus: Post-disaster response and humanitarian aid. Modern Approach: Pre-disaster risk management, resilience building, and minimizing vulnerability.

Disaster Risk Management Elements

Risk Assessment Factors: Probability of occurrence Socio-economic and political conditions Hazard intensity Coping capacity

Inter-relationship Between Hazard, Vulnerability, Capacity, and Disaster Risk Formula: Disaster Risk = (Vulnerability × Hazard) / Capacity

Disaster Preparedness Cycle Mitigation Preparedness Response Recovery

Introduction to Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are hard, intricate, and colourful three-dimensional structures providing habitats for thousands of marine species including fish, invertebrates, sea turtles, and many other animals. Coral reefs are habitats for 25% of all marine species and are crucial for ecosystem balance. Found mostly in shallow coastal zones of tropical and sub-tropical oceans, coral reefs are among the world’s most diverse and productive ecosystems. Corals are formed by colonies of tiny organisms called polyps, which secrete layers of calcium carbonate to create protective crusts. These structures remain even after the polyps die, allowing other organisms to continue building the reef. Coral polyps and microscopic algae called zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship: polyps provide shelter while zooxanthellae provide food through photosynthesis and contribute to the reefs' colors.

Types of Reefs

Fringing Reefs Located near emergent land, they are shallow, narrow, and recently formed. They can be separated from the coast by a navigable channel.

Barrier Reefs Broader and lie farther from the coast, separated by a stretch of water that can be several miles wide and tens of meters deep. Sandy islands sometimes form on top of these reefs.

Atolls Ring-shaped reefs with a lagoon in the middle, often developed near the sea surface on underwater islands or sinking islands. The emergent part is typically covered with sediments and vegetation like coconut trees.

Coral Reefs Distribution

Located in more than 100 countries, mostly between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, including the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf. Cover an estimated area of 284,000 sq. km. Three major regions of development: Indo-Pacific, Wider Caribbean, and Red Sea.

Cold Water Corals Have a hard skeleton and form huge reef structures in dark, deep, and cold waters. Lopheliapertusa is the only reef-forming coral in British waters. Found mainly on continental slopes off the west coast of Scotland at depths of 200-400 meters. United Nations Environment Programme reports more cold-water coral reefs worldwide than tropical reefs.

Coral Reefs in India Located in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kachchh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Malvan coast, Netrani Island, and Gaveshani bank off the Mangalore coast.

Factors Affecting Reefs

Sunlight: Corals need shallow water where sunlight can penetrate for the zooxanthellae algae to survive. Clear Water: Corals need clear water for sunlight to reach them; sediment and plankton can cloud water and reduce sunlight. Warm Water Temperature: Corals require warm water conditions (68–90°F or 20–32°C) to survive. Clean Water: Corals are sensitive to pollution and sediments, which can block sunlight and harm polyps. Saltwater: Corals need saltwater with a specific salt-to-water ratio to survive.

Conservation Efforts in India

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Prohibits the use of corals and sands from beaches and coastal waters for construction. Coastal Regulation Zone Rules: Ban the collection and destruction of corals, along with dredging and underwater blasting. Marine Protected Area Network: Includes the Gulf of Mannar and Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserves, and Marine National Parks in the Gulf of Kachchh, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, and Rani Jhansi Marine National Park.

Threats to Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are vulnerable due to their slow growth and sensitivity to environmental changes. Coral Bleaching: Caused by ocean warming, leading to stress, ejection of zooxanthellae, and the death of corals. Sea-Level Rise: Slows coral growth and reduces sunlight exposure. Ocean Acidification: Hinders the ability of polyps to create reefs, making them weaker and more vulnerable. Storms: Frequent storms can damage reef structures faster than they can regrow. Other Threats: Destructive fishing, water pollution, unsustainable tourism, coastal development, sediment runoff, and coral mining.

Causes of Coral Bleaching Solar Irradiance: Bleaching often occurs during summer at maximum sunlight exposure, especially in shallow waters. Sub-aerial Exposure: Sudden exposure to air during extreme low tides or tectonic uplift can cause bleaching. Sedimentation: Sediment loading can increase the likelihood of bleaching. Fresh Water Dilution: Storm-generated precipitation and runoff can cause bleaching, typically in small, near shore areas. Inorganic Nutrients: Increased nutrient concentrations can boost zooxanthellae densities, potentially leading to bleaching.

Epizootics Pathogen-induced bleaching differs from other types; most coral diseases cause patchy or whole-colony death, resulting in a white skeleton rather than bleached tissues. Bleaching due to pathogens can affect a diverse range of coral hosts.

Anthropogenic Impacts Human-induced disturbances like pollution, nutrient enrichment, and sedimentation are harmful to coral reefs. Human activities such as deforestation and poor land use practices increase the flow of freshwater, sediments, and pollutants to reef ecosystems.

Introduction

Wetlands are dynamic ecosystems supporting biodiversity, regulating water, purifying water quality, storing carbon, and providing economic and recreational benefits. Characterized by hydrology, hydrophytes, and hydric soils, wetlands include various types such as inland, coastal, and human-made wetlands.

Types of Wetlands

Inland Wetlands: Marshes, ponds, lakes, fens, rivers, floodplains, and swamps. Coastal Wetlands: Saltwater marshes, estuaries, mangroves, lagoons, and coral reefs. Human-Made Wetlands: Fish ponds, rice paddies, and salt pans.

Ecosystem Services Provided by Wetlands

Biodiversity Support: Habitats for diverse species. Water Regulation: Reducing flood and drought risks. Water Purification: Filtering pollutants. Carbon Storage: Mitigating climate change. Habitat Provision: Essential habitats for various species. Economic Benefits: Resources like fish, rice, and timber. Recreation and Tourism: Opportunities for activities and eco-tourism.

Wetlands in India

India boasts diverse wetland ecosystems, including Himalayan, Indo-Gangetic, coastal, and Deccan wetlands. Notable wetland sites include Chilika Lake, Sundarbans, and Loktak Lake.

Conservation Efforts

Ramsar Convention: Designates Ramsar sites for wetland conservation. Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017: Empowers state-level authorities for wetland protection. National Wetland Inventory and Assessment Project: Aims to map wetlands for informed management. National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems: Emphasizes integrated management for wetland conservation.

Conclusion

Wetlands are invaluable ecosystems requiring concerted efforts for conservation to ensure their continued benefits for future generations.

Mangroves are plants that thrive in harsh conditions including high salinity, tidal regimes, and muddy anaerobic soil, making them essential in coastal ecosystems.

• Found worldwide between 25° N and 25° S of the Equator.
• Act as a link between terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
• Commonly located in sheltered shores, estuaries, creeks, and marshes.
• Play a crucial role in stabilizing shorelines and creating new land.

Various legislative measures and initiatives are in place for the protection and conservation of mangroves:

• Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 1991
• Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 1994
• Indian Forest Act, 1927
• Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

Mangroves for the Future Initiative:

• Aims to promote investment in ecosystem conservation for sustainable coastal development.
• Facilitates regional cooperation, national program support, private sector engagement, and community action.

Mangrove Restoration Projects:

• Undertaken by various organizations to restore and protect mangrove habitats.
• Examples include projects by Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) and the Global Mangrove Alliance.

India has seen an increase in mangrove cover, with various states actively participating in conservation efforts:

• Top gainers in mangrove cover include Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat.
• Reasons for increase include plantation, regeneration, and conservation efforts.
• Mangroves are present along both the east and west coasts of India, including Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Estuaries are vital coastal ecosystems characterized by the mixing of freshwater and saltwater. They serve as transition zones between land and sea.

• Act as semi-enclosed coastal bodies of water.
• Play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and biodiversity.
• Formed at the mouths of rivers or streams where they flow into the ocean.

Characteristics of Estuaries

• Partially enclosed coastal bodies of water.
• Exhibit a complete salinity range from 0-35 PPT.
• Biologically productive zones with diverse ecosystems.
• Varied geomorphological features like bays, harbors, and inlets.

Types of Estuaries

• Coastal Plain Estuary
• Tectonic Estuary
• Bar-Built Estuary

Major Estuaries in Indian Coastal States

India hosts several significant estuaries across its coastal states:

• Gujarat: Ambica, Bhadar, Daman Ganga, Mahi, Narmada, Sabarmati, Tapi
• Maharashtra: Daman Ganga, Narmada
• Karnataka: Karwar, Mandovi
• Kerala: Periar Estuary
• Tamil Nadu: Cauvery, Ponnaiyar, Vaigai
• Andhra Pradesh: Godavari, Krishna, Pennar
• Odisha: Mahanadi
• West Bengal: Ganges Delta, Hooghly-Matlah

• To limit factors leading to reduction of tiger habitats and mitigate them
• To ensure a viable population of tigers for economic, scientific, cultural, aesthetic, and ecological values

Principles

Tiger reserves based on 'core-buffer' strategy:

• Core area: Freed of all human activities, with legal status of national park or wildlife sanctuary
• Buffer areas: Subjected to 'conservation-oriented land use', providing habitat supplement and developmental inputs

Administration

National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

• Provides statutory authority to Project Tiger
• Fosters accountability of Center-State management of Tiger Reserves
• Addresses livelihood interests of local people

Challenges

Challenges include protection against poaching, habitat fragmentation, human-tiger conflict, corridor restoration, and public support

Methodology of Tiger Census

• Pugmark Technique
• Installation of Cameras
• Double-Sampling Method
• M-STrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers)

Critical Tiger Habitat

Declared wildlife habitat areas in National Parks and Sanctuaries required to be kept inviolate for wildlife conservation

Other Steps for Tiger Conservation

• Special Tiger Protection Force (STPF)
• Global Tiger Initiative (GTI)
• Global Tiger Forum
• TRAFFIC
• Tx2 Goal (to double the number of wild tigers by 2022)
• Memorandum of Understanding with Nepal and protocol on tiger conservation with China

• To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
• To address issues of man-animal conflict
• Welfare of captive elephants

States Implemented

Mainly implemented in 16 States / UTs:

• Andhra Pradesh
• Arunachal Pradesh
• Assam
• Chhattisgarh
• Jharkhand
• Karnataka
• Kerala
• Maharashtra
• Meghalaya
• Nagaland
• Odisha
• Tamil Nadu
• Tripura
• Uttarakhand
• Uttar Pradesh
• West Bengal

Main Activities

• Ecological restoration of elephant habitats and migratory routes
• Management for conservation of elephant habitats and population
• Mitigation of human-elephant conflict
• Protection of wild elephants from poaching
• Research on elephant management
• Public education and awareness programs
• Eco-development
• Veterinary care
• Elephant Rehabilitation/Rescue Centers

Elephant Corridors

Elephant corridors connect habitats and enhance species survival:

• Defined as stretches of land connecting larger habitats with elephant populations
• Facilitate movement between habitats
• Help in addressing human-elephant conflict

National Elephant Corridor Project

Approaches to securing elephant corridors:

• Land purchase and voluntary relocation
• Mediation between authorities and locals
• Community participation in habitat conservation

Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme

MIKE program aims to gather information for elephant range States:

• Measures levels and trends in illegal hunting
• Identifies factors causing changes in trends
• Collects data from specified MIKE sites

Awareness Campaign under Gaj Yatra

Gaj Yatra campaign raises awareness about shrinking elephant habitats:

• Artists and craftsmen create works on elephant themes in 12 elephant range states
• Life-size works displayed along pre-determined routes
• Gaju mascot leads the campaign
• Gaj mahotsav organized with various activities along the way

World Elephant Day

An annual global event celebrated on August 12 to raise awareness about elephant conservation:

• Aims to share knowledge and solutions for the better care of elephants
• Asian elephants are listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List

• Objective:
  • Promote a knowledge-based and adaptive conservation framework.
  • Involve local communities in conservation efforts.
  • Implement recovery programs for endangered species.
  • Enhance wildlife protection measures and law enforcement.
  • Manage human-wildlife conflicts and promote conservation education.
• Administrative Mechanism:
  • Tier 1: Central Level - Steering Committee
  • Tier 2: State Level - State Snow Leopard Conservation Society
  • Tier 3: Area Level - Landscape Level Implementation Committees
  • Tier 4: Village Level - Village Wildlife Conservation Committees
• Geographical Coverage: All biologically important landscapes in the Himalayan high altitudes in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Other Benefitted Species: Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali, Ladakh Urial, Chiru, Takin, Serow, Musk Deer.
• Protected Areas: Snow leopards inhabit various protected areas including Hemis National Park, Nanda Devi National Park, Valley of Flowers National Park, and others.
• Global Initiative: Snow leopards are found in 11 countries, and the Global Snow Leopard Forum (GSLF) was formed to protect this species.
• Symbolism: The snow leopard is the state animal of Himachal Pradesh.

India hosts nine species of vultures, three of which are critically endangered with a drastic decline in population.

• Government Measures:
  • Upgrade of protection status for critically endangered vulture species.
  • Initiation of conservation breeding projects in collaboration with organizations like the Bombay Natural History Society.
  • Establishment of captive breeding centers at various zoos across India.
• Vulture Safe Zones (VSZs):
  • Designation of VSZs to create drug-free areas for vultures' natural habitat.
  • Current VSZs declared in five states across seven locations.
• Sustainable Plan (2014–2025):
  • Advocacy for drug ban enforcement and research for safer alternatives.
  • Continuation and expansion of conservation breeding initiatives.
  • Exploration of sustainable livestock sourcing for feeding captive vultures.
  • Expansion of vulture safe zones and release of captive-bred birds.
  • Strengthening sensitization and monitoring activities.
• Save Initiative:
  • Consortium for vulture conservation in South Asia, focusing on captive breeding and drug safety testing.
• Vulture Restaurants:
  • Sites where carrion is deposited for vultures to feed on, initiated in Maharashtra.
• Captive Breeding:
  • Breeding of vultures in controlled environments such as wildlife reserves and zoos.

Action Plan for Vulture Conservation in India: 2020-2025

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has prepared an Action Plan for Vulture Conservation for the period 2020-2025, with the following proposed objectives:

• Prevention of poisoning of cattle carcasses, the principal food of vultures.
• Enhancement of Conservation Breeding Programme in the country.
• Regular monitoring of vultures across the country.
• Enhancing the vulture safe zone network by creating at least one vulture safe zone in each state.
• Determining and preventing other causes of mortality in vultures.

The Crocodile Conservation Project was initiated in 1975 due to the threats faced by crocodilians in India, including indiscriminate killing and habitat loss.

• Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus):
• Estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus):
• Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris):

Objective

The primary objectives of the project were:

• To boost reproductive output through collection and incubation of wild-laid eggs.
• To establish and manage crocodile rehabilitation centers and sanctuaries in suitable habitats.

Other Measures

Additional measures included:

• Establishment of a Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute in Hyderabad in 1980.

The Ganges Dolphin Project focuses on the conservation of the Gangetic River Dolphin, primarily found in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers and their tributaries in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal.

• Gangetic Dolphins are blind and are also known as Susu and Shushuk because of the sound they produce when breathing.
• The Gangetic Dolphin has been recognized as the National Aquatic Animal by the Government of India.

Threats

The Gangetic Dolphin faces several threats, including:

• River water pollution
• Siltation in rivers
• Entanglement in fishing nets
• Reduction in river flow due to the construction of dams
• Poaching for its oil

Conservation Measures

To address these threats, various conservation measures have been undertaken, including:

• Establishment of the Ganges River Dolphin Conservation Programme in 1997
• Creation of India’s first Dolphin Community Reserve in West Bengal
• Initiation of the National Dolphin Research Centre in Bihar

Other River Dolphins

Other river dolphin species include:

• Irrawady River Dolphins (found in Myanmar, Indonesia, and the Mekong river delta)
• Indus River Dolphins (found in the Indus river in Pakistan and Beas and Sutlej rivers in India)
• Amazon River Dolphins (found in the Amazon river)
• Yangtze River Dolphins (presumed extinct)

Project Cheetah aims to reintroduce cheetahs into the dryland ecosystems of India to restore natural balance.

• Cheetahs are the flagship species of grasslands, scrublands, and open forests.
• The cheetah, known for its speed, is the fastest land animal.
• The cheetah, once part of India's heritage, has been declared extinct in the country.
• It is found in arid regions of eastern Iran in Asia and in Africa.

Project Hangul

Project Hangul focuses on the conservation of the Kashmir stag, a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to northern India.

• The Kashmir stag lives in dense riverine forests, high valleys, and mountains.
• Once numbering around 5,000, their population dwindled to as low as 150 by 1970.
• Project Hangul, initiated in collaboration with the IUCN and WWF, successfully increased the population to over 340 by 1980.

GOI – UNDP Sea Turtle Project

The Sea Turtle Conservation Project aims to conserve olive ridley turtles and other endangered marine turtles along the Indian coast.

• Implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and UNDP
• Key achievements include mapping nesting sites, developing conservation guidelines, and using satellite telemetry for tracking.
• Various steps, including amendments to the Wildlife Protection Act and regular patrolling, have been taken to protect sea turtles.

India adopts SAWEN

India has adopted the Statute of the South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN) to strengthen cooperation in combating wildlife crime in the region.

• SAWEN comprises eight South Asian countries and aims to combat illegal wildlife trade through communication, coordination, and collaboration.

Recent Initiatives

• The Kunming Declaration calls for mainstreaming biodiversity protection and supporting post-2020 implementation plans.
• The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act aims to protect plant varieties, farmers' rights, and stimulate investment in agricultural research.