Explore the Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BC to 1900 BC) of the Indus Valley Civilization, focusing on settlements, agricultural practices, technological advancements, trade, and social organization.

Harappan Cities (Class 6, Chapter 4)

• Major Cities: Detailed description of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, and Lothal. Emphasis on their geographical location, discovery, and excavation.
• Urban Planning: In-depth analysis of the grid system used for city planning, straight streets, and uniform brick sizes. Discussion on the citadel and lower town layout.
• Public Buildings: Examination of structures like the Great Bath in Mohenjo-Daro, granaries, assembly halls, and possible administrative buildings.

Life in the City (Class 6, Chapter 4)

• Daily Life: Detailed account of residential structures, including multi-room houses, courtyards, wells, and bathrooms. Insights into dietary habits based on archaeological findings of grain and animal bones.
• Occupations: Roles of various occupational groups such as farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and administrators. Description of tools and techniques used in agriculture and craftsmanship.
• Entertainment: Discussion on toys, games, musical instruments, and recreational activities like dice games and dance.

New Crafts in the City (Class 6, Chapter 4)

• Crafts and Technologies: Detailed description of bead-making, pottery, metallurgy, and the use of advanced tools. Examination of the types of materials used, such as clay, stone, and metals.
• Seals and Scripts: Description of various types of seals, their motifs, and the undeciphered script. Discussion on the significance of seals in trade and administrative functions.

A Closer Look - Harappan Towns in Gujarat (Class 6, Chapter 4)

• Dholavira: Unique features of Dholavira, including its water management system with reservoirs and check dams, public buildings, and inscriptions found on stone slabs.
• Lothal: Examination of Lothal’s dockyard, its importance for maritime trade, bead-making workshops, and evidence of extensive trade with other regions.

Introduction (Class 9, Chapter 1)

• Discovery and Excavation: Historical context of the discovery by John Marshall and other archaeologists. Timeline of key excavations and findings.
• Geographical Extent: Map and description of the spread of the Harappan Civilization from the Indus Valley to Gujarat, including major and minor sites.

Town Planning and Architecture (Class 9, Chapter 1)

• City Layout: Detailed layout of Harappan cities, including the separation of the citadel and lower town, wide main streets, and narrow lanes.
• Buildings: Detailed description of residential buildings, public baths, granaries, warehouses, and defensive walls. Specific features like the Great Bath and its construction techniques.
• Drainage System: Advanced drainage system with covered drains, soak pits, and sewage disposal. Importance of hygiene and sanitation in urban planning.

Economic Life (Class 9, Chapter 1)

• Agriculture: Types of crops grown, such as wheat, barley, and millet. Use of irrigation techniques, plow-based farming, and domestication of animals like cattle and buffalo.
• Crafts: Detailed account of various crafts like pottery (types and styles), bead-making (materials and techniques), shell and ivory work, and metalworking (copper, bronze).
• Trade: Description of trade routes, types of goods traded (beads, pottery, metals, textiles), and evidence of trade with Mesopotamia (cylinder seals, Mesopotamian records).

Social and Political Life (Class 9, Chapter 1)

• Social Structure: Possible social hierarchy inferred from burial practices, housing differences, and artifact distribution. Roles of artisans, traders, and farmers.
• Political Organization: Hypotheses on governance structures, such as centralized authority, evidence from public works, and administrative buildings.
• Public Works: Large-scale constructions like the Great Bath, granaries, and dockyards indicating organized labor and state control.

Religion and Beliefs (Class 9, Chapter 1)

• Deities and Symbols: Detailed description of religious artifacts like seals depicting the Mother Goddess, Pashupati (proto-Shiva), and other deities. Importance of symbols like the swastika and animal motifs.
• Rituals: Use of fire altars, evidence of animal sacrifices, and other ritual practices inferred from artifacts and structures.
• Burial Practices: Different types of burials (extended, flexed), grave goods (pottery, ornaments), and their implications for beliefs about the afterlife and social status.

Decline of the Harappan Civilization (Class 9, Chapter 1)

• Environmental Factors: Discussion on climate change, river drying up (Saraswati hypothesis), and their impact on agriculture and settlement patterns.
• Economic Factors: Decline in trade with Mesopotamia, resource depletion, and its effects on urban centers.
• Invasion Theories: Hypothetical Aryan invasion, evidence from Rigveda, and counter-evidence challenging this theory.

Early Urbanization (Class 11, Chapter 2)

• Rise of Cities: Comparison of early cities like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Harappa. Factors contributing to urbanization, such as agricultural surplus and trade.
• Features of Urbanization: Common features like planned settlements, public works, social stratification, and economic specialization.

The Harappan System (Class 11, Chapter 2)

• Urban Planning: Detailed features of Harappan cities, including grid layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and public buildings.
• Socio-Economic Aspects: Analysis of social hierarchy, economic activities, and their interdependence. Role of trade and craft specialization in urban economy.

Writing and Seals (Class 11, Chapter 2)

• Harappan Script: Characteristics of the undeciphered script, its presence on seals, pottery, and other artifacts. Hypotheses about its usage and significance.
• Seals: Description of various seal types, motifs (animals, humans, geometric patterns), and their role in trade and administrative control.

Material Culture and Trade (Class 11, Chapter 2)

• Craft Specialization: Detailed description of various crafts and their techniques. Pottery styles, bead-making materials (carnelian, lapis lazuli), and metalworking.
• Trade Networks: Evidence of trade within the Harappan region and with distant areas like Mesopotamia, Central Asia. Goods traded and their significance.

Introduction (Class 12, Chapter 1)

• Discovery and Importance: Historical context of the discovery of the Harappan Civilization, its importance in understanding early Indian history, and major archaeological findings.

The Story of Harappa (Class 12, Chapter 1)

• Excavation History: Timeline of key excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and other sites. Significant findings and their impact on understanding the civilization.
• Geographical Spread: Detailed description of the extent of the Harappan Civilization, including a map showing major sites and their geographical distribution.

Agricultural Techniques and Irrigation (Class 12, Chapter 1)

• Farming Practices: Detailed account of crops grown, irrigation techniques, and farming tools used. Role of agriculture in supporting urban centers.
• Rural Settlements: Patterns of rural habitation, relationship with urban centers, and evidence of agricultural surplus feeding urban populations.

Craft Production and Technology (Class 12, Chapter 1)

• Technological Advancements: Innovations in metallurgy (copper, bronze), pottery (types, firing techniques), bead-making, and textile production.
• Organization of Production: Workshop structures, division of labor, and distribution of crafts. Evidence of large-scale production and trade.

Trade and Commerce (Class 12, Chapter 1)

• Trade Routes: Description of overland and maritime trade routes, evidence from archaeological findings (dockyards, Mesopotamian records).
• Goods Traded: Detailed list of items traded (beads, metals, pottery, textiles) and their significance in the Harappan economy.

Religion, Funerary Practices, and Society (Class 12, Chapter 1)

• Religious Beliefs: Detailed description of religious artifacts like seals, terracotta figurines, and fire altars. Hypotheses on Harappan religious practices.
• Burial Practices: Analysis of different burial types, grave goods, and their implications for understanding Harappan social structure and beliefs about the afterlife.
• Social Organization: Insights into social hierarchy, urban-rural relationships, and the roles of various occupational groups.