Explore the challenges the Mughal Empire faced, including key battles, invasions, and the rise of new states after Aurangzeb's death. A timeline of major events in Mughal history.

• External Challenges
• In the absence of internal strength, the Mughals could not put a tough front against external challenges which came in the form of several invasions from the north-west. The north-western borders had been neglected by the later Mughals and not much effort was expended in protecting the border.
• Nadir Shah's Invasion
• In 1738-39, Nadir Shah, the Persian emperor, attacked India, conquered Lahore, and defeated the Mughal army at Karnal on February 13, 1739. Later, Muhammad Shah was captured, and Delhi looted and devastated. According to an estimate, apart from the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor diamond, seventy crore rupees were collected from the official treasury and the safes of the rich nobles. Nadir Shah gained the strategically important Mughal territory to the west of the Indus including Kabul. Thus, India once again became vulnerable to the attacks from the north-west.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions
• Ahmad Shah Abdali (or Ahmad Shah Durrani), who was elected the successor of Nadir Shah after the latter’s death in 1747, invaded India several times between 1748 and 1767. He continuously harassed the Mughals who tried to buy peace in 1751-52 by ceding Punjab to him. In 1757, Abdali captured Delhi and left behind an Afghan caretaker to watch over the Mughal emperor. Before his return, Abdali had recognised Alamgir II as the Mughal emperor and the Rohilla chief, Najib-ud-Daula, as Mir Bakhshi of the empire, who was to act as personal ‘supreme agent’ of Abdali. In 1758, Najib-ud-Daula was expelled from Delhi by the Maratha chief, Raghunath Rao, who also captured Punjab. In 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to India to take revenge on the Marathas. In 1761, Abdali defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat. The last of Abdali’s invasions came in 1767.
• View on Nadir Shah's Impact
• Nader Shah was Mughal emperor for only fifty-seven days, in 1739, but those days created aftershocks that transformed India's politics. They broke existing centres of authority, massively shrinking the scope of Mughal power. They set loose bands of mounted warriors who ransacked the countryside seeking wealth from villages and towns. They pushed traders behind the walls of whichever power had the strongest forts. For a short period plunder, rather than negotiation, became the most effective tool for creating new centres of wealth. Those fifty-seven days laid the ground which allowed the East India Company to conquer territory in India for the first time. —Jon Wilson, India Conquered

Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat?

• Panipat and its adjacent region, located in present Haryana on the banks of the Yamuna and between the fertile plains of the Ganga and Indus rivers, have witnessed several battles. These battles changed the course of Indian history at different points of time.
• First Battle of Panipat (1526)
• The first Battle of Panipat was between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi. The result of the battle laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire by ending the rule of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Second Battle of Panipat (1556)
• The second Battle of Panipat was between Akbar and Hemu; it decided in favour of the continuation of the Mughal rule.
• Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
• The third Battle of Panipat between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali put an end to the Maratha ambition of ruling over India.
• Why Panipat was a Favourite Battlefield
• ● Panipat had a strategic location. One of the parties of the war generally came from the north/northwest through the Khyber Pass to get hold over Delhi, the political capital of northern India. To move a military through rough terrains—deserts of Rajasthan or the other northern areas infested with dense forests—was very risky and difficult. On the other hand, the rulers at Delhi considered Panipat as a confrontable strategic ground and hence they preferred to take the fight there.
• ● Its proximity to Delhi made it easier for the Indian rulers to transport weapons, military and food supplies etc., to the battleground, and still keep the capital insulated from the conflict at hand.
• ● Panipat’s surrounding region has a flat ground which was suitable for cavalry movement—the main mode of warfare at the time.
• ● After the construction of the Grand Trunk Road by Sher Shah Suri (1540-45), Panipat was on this route. It became easier for conquerors to find their way there.
• ● The duration of monsoon rainfall in the region is short in comparison to other areas making it easier to fight.
• ● The artisans/smiths of these regions were experts in making warfare-related materials and hence it became easier for forces of both parties to replenish their war materials.

Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An Internal Challenge

• Bahadur Shah I (1709–March 1712)
• After a nearly two-year-long war of succession, the 63-year-old Prince Muazzam, the eldest son of Aurangzeb, became the emperor, taking the title Bahadur Shah. He was later called Bahadur Shah I. He had killed his brothers Muhammad Azam and Kam Bakhsh in the war of succession. Khafi Khan gave the title of Shah-i-Bekhabar to Bahadur Shah.
• He adopted a pacific policy with the Marathas, the Rajputs and the Jats. Shahu, the Maratha prince, was released from Mughal captivity, and Rajput chiefs were confirmed in their respective states. However, the Sikh leader Banda Bahadur attacked the Muslims in Punjab and hence the emperor took action against him. Bahadur Shah I died in February 1712.
• Jahandar Shah (March 1712-February 1713)
• With the help of Zulfikar Khan, Jahandar Shah became the emperor. Zulfikar Khan was appointed prime minister; he introduced the izara system to improve the financial condition of the empire. Jahandar Shah abolished Jaziya.
• Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
• After killing Jahandar Shah with the help of Sayyid brothers—Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali (known as ‘King Makers’), Farrukhsiyar became the new emperor. He followed a policy of religious tolerance by abolishing Jaziya and pilgrimage tax. In 1717, he gave farmans to the British. In 1719, the Sayyid brothers, with the help of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, dethroned Farrukhsiyar. Later, he was blinded and killed. It was the first time in the Mughal history that an emperor was killed by his nobles.
• Rafi-ud-Darajat (February 28 to June 4, 1719)
• He ruled for the shortest period among the Mughals.
• Rafi-ud-Daula or Shah Jahan II (June 6 to September 17, 1719)
• He was the successor of Rafi-ud-Darajat. He ruled for three months only.
• Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)
• Roshan Akhtar, the son of Jahan Shah (fourth son of Bahadur Shah I), became the emperor with the help of Sayyid brothers. He assumed the title Muhammad Shah. He was given the title Rangeela because of his luxurious lifestyle. The Sayyid brothers were killed by the nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk (the founder of the independent state of Hyderabad) in 1720.
• During his reign, various provinces became independent. In 1724, Hyderabad was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk. In 1720, the Afghan invader, Mir Muhammad, founded the independent kingdom of Rohilkhand. In 1737, Baji Rao I, the Maratha ruler, plundered Delhi. During his period, Nadir Shah invaded Delhi and took away the Peacock Throne and Kohinoor diamond. In 1748, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Punjab.
• Ahmad Shah (1748-1754)
• Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India in 1749. The wazir, Safdarjung, was supported by Marathas and Jats against the Rohillas. Ahmad Shah was later deposed by his Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk.
• Alamgir II (1754-1759)
• He was supported by Imad-ul-Mulk and Marathas. In 1757, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India again, defeated the Marathas and captured Delhi. Alamgir II was killed by Imad-ul-Mulk.
• Shah Jahan III (1759-1760)
• He was made emperor by the vizier Imad-ul-Mulk, but later was deposed by Marathas.
• Shah Alam II (1760-1806)
• He was the son of Alamgir II. In 1764, Shah Alam II fought the Battle of Buxar against the British forces under Major Hector Munro. He signed the Treaty of Allahabad with Robert Clive in 1765. According to the treaty, Shah Alam was taken under British protection and resided at Allahabad. The emperor granted the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha to the East India Company in lieu of an annual tribute of Rs 26 lakh. In 1772, the Marathas took him to Delhi. The real authority, however, was in the hands of Mahadji Scindia, who ruled in his name.
• Akbar II (1806-1837)
• He gave the title of Raja to RamMohan Rai. He sent Ram Mohan Roy to England to seek a hike in his pension.
• Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857)
• He was the last Mughal emperor. During the Revolt of 1857, he was proclaimed the emperor by the rebels. After the revolt, he was deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862.

Emergence of New States

• The states that emerged can be broadly divided into the following three categories:
• 1. Successor States
• They were the old Mughal provinces which had become independent. Though the rulers of these states maintained the Mughal suzerainty, they were, in practically independent. These included states like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad. The autonomous rulers of these states, the Nawabs and the Nizams, continued to maintain the dignity of the Mughal Emperor. They sought legitimisation of their rule from the emperor and often showed a great formal respect to him.
• 2. Independent Kingdoms
• The independent kingdoms include those which came into existence due to the destabilisation of the Mughal control over the provinces. These included the Rajput principalities such as Jaipur, Udaipur, etc., and the Mughal provinces like Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand. Some of the provinces were under the control of the Marathas.
• 3. New States
• The new states include those which were established by the rebels against the Mughals. These were set up by the groups who had rebelled against the Mughal authority. The notable examples include the Marathas under the Peshwas, the Jats under Suraj Mal, and the Sikhs under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. These states came into existence as a result of the assertion of the regional identities and aspirations. These regional forces asserted themselves against the centralised Mughal authority.