Explore the socio-economic conditions, cultural achievements, and historical transformations of 18th-century Mughal India. Learn about societal structures, education systems, art, architecture, and the rise of regional states.

• The education imparted in 18th-century India remained traditional and could not keep pace with the rapid developments in the West.
• Knowledge was largely confined to literature, law, religion, philosophy, and logic, excluding the study of physical and natural sciences, technology, and geography.
• Over-reliance on ancient learning discouraged original thought.
• Elementary education among Hindus and Muslims was widespread, with Hindu and Muslim elementary schools called pathshalas and maktabs, respectively.
• Education focused on reading, writing, and arithmetic, with occasional attendance by children from lower castes and rare presence of females.

Higher Education Centers

• Higher education centers were known as chatuspathis or tols in Bihar and Bengal, with famous Sanskrit education centers in Kasi (Varanasi), Tirhut (Mithila), Nadia, and Utkala.
• Madrasahs provided higher learning for Persian and Arabic, with Persian being the court language learned by both Muslims and Hindus.
• Azimabad (Patna) was a notable center for Persian education, and those interested in Quranic studies and Muslim theology needed proficiency in Arabic.

Societal Set-up

• 18th-century Indian society was marked by a traditional outlook and stagnation, despite a degree of broad cultural unity.
• People were divided by caste, religion, region, tribe, and language.
• The family system was patriarchal, and caste was central to Hindu social life.
• Besides the four varnas, numerous sub-castes fixed social status, although caste status could be fluid in some regions due to exceptions in professional choices.
• Caste councils and panchayats enforced caste norms and regulations.

Muslim Society

• Though Islam promoted social equality, Muslims were also divided by caste, race, tribe, and status.
• Sunni and Shia nobles, as well as Irani, Afghan, Turani, and Hindustani Muslim nobles and officials, often remained separate.
• The sharif Muslims (nobles, scholars, priests, and military officials) looked down on the ajlaf Muslims (lower class), similar to higher-caste Hindus' treatment of lower-caste Hindus.
• Religious conversions occurred, with caste being a major divisive force and an element of disintegration in 18th-century India.

Position of Women in Society

• The patriarchal family system in India left women with little individuality, except in some social groups in Kerala.
• Upper-class women stayed at home, while lower-class women worked in fields and outside to supplement family income.
• Outdated and exploitative customs like purdah, sati, child marriage, and polygamy hindered women's progress.
• Hindu widows often lived miserably, with dowry particularly widespread in Bengal and Rajputana.
• Efforts to promote widow remarriage by Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and Maratha General Prashuram Bhau failed.

Menace of Slavery

• 17th-century European travelers and administrators reported widespread slavery in India, with people sometimes compelled to sell offspring due to economic distress, famines, natural calamities, and extreme poverty.
• Higher classes of Rajputs, Khatris, and Kayasthas kept women slaves for domestic work.
• However, Indian slaves were generally treated better than in Europe, often seen as hereditary servants rather than menials.
• Marriages among slaves produced free offspring.
• European advent heightened slavery and the slave trade in India, with European trading companies purchasing slaves from Bengal, Assam, and Bihar markets and exporting them to Europe and America.
• Abyssinian slaves were sold in Surat, Madras, and Calcutta.

Post-Mughal Period

• The decline of the imperial Mughals led talented individuals to seek patronage from newly established state courts like Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Murshidabad, Patna, and Kashmir.
• Asaf-ud-Daula built the Bada Imambara in Lucknow in 1784.
• Sawai Jai Singh built the pink city of Jaipur and five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura, and Ujjain, along with time-tables called Jij Muhammad-shahi for astronomy study.
• In Kerala, the Padmanabhapuram Palace, known for its architecture and mural paintings, was constructed.
• New painting schools, like those of Rajputana and Kangra, achieved distinction and vitality.

Literary Developments

• The 18th century saw the growth of Urdu language and poetry, with poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir, and Mirza Ghalib (19th century) gaining prominence.
• Malayalam literature flourished in South India under the Travancore rulers, with notable poets like Kanchan Nambiar.
• Tamil language was enriched by sittar poetry, with Tayumanavar (1706-44) protesting against temple-rule abuses and the caste system.
• Waris Shah composed the romantic epic Heer Ranjha in Punjabi literature, while Shah Abdul Latif's Risalo, a collection of poems, enriched Sindhi literature.

Why the Mughal Empire Declined

• Weak Successors: The Mughal Empire relied on strong monarchs.
• Absence of Definite Law of Succession: Continuous succession wars fostered partisanship.
• Aurangzeb’s Religious and Deccan Policies: Alienated Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, and Marathas; prolonged absence from the capital.
• Degeneration of Rulers and Nobles
• Deterioration of Army
• Too Vast an Empire: Difficult to administer efficiently.
• External Invasions: Irani and Durrani invasions weakened the empire.
• Economic Decline: Wars, agricultural stagnation, and trade decline emptied the treasury.
• Advent of Europeans: Interference in native politics hastened disintegration.
• Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars
• Jagirdari Crisis
• Rise of Regional Aspirations: Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad, Mysore, Kerala, Rajput, and Jat states contributed to disintegration.

Rise of Regional States

• Successor States: Hyderabad (1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk), Bengal (1717, Murshid Quli Khan), Awadh (1722, Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk).
• Independent States: Mysore (under Haidar Ali), Kerala (King Martanda Varma), Rajput States (Raja Sawai Singh of Amber).
• New States: Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Afghans.

Socio-Economic Conditions

• Agriculture: Stagnant and technologically backward, with hard labor by peasants. Major crops included rice, wheat, sugar, pepper, spices, and cotton.
• Trade and Industry: Flourished with exports like cotton textiles, raw silk, silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper, precious stones, and drugs. Imports included gold, musk, woollen cloth, copper, iron, lead, paper, porcelain, pearls, dates, dried fruits, coffee, tea, ivory, and rose water.
• Education: Elementary education through pathshalas and maktabs. Higher learning through chatuspathis/tols (Hindus) and madrasahs (Muslims). Lack of science, technology, and geography studies.

Society

• Caste System: Hindus divided into many sub-castes. Muslims also divided by caste, race, tribe, and status.
• Art, Architecture, and Culture: Prominent building projects and painting schools. Growth of Urdu poetry and regional languages.

Prominent Art and Architecture

• Asaf-ud-Daula’s Bada Imambara in Lucknow (1784).
• Sawai Jai Singh’s Jaipur and astronomical observatories.
• Kangra and Rajputana painting schools.

Literary Developments

• Growth of Urdu language and poetry.
• Regional languages enriched by various poets and literary works.