Status and Identity of Women: Women were generally accorded a low status and were considered to be inferior adjuncts to men, with no identity of their own. They enjoyed no scope of giving expression to their talents due to practices such as purdah, early marriage, ban on widow-marriage, sati, etc.
Dependence and Denial of Rights: Both Hindu and Muslim women were economically and socially dependent on male relatives, while education was generally denied to them. Hindu women did not enjoy the right to inherit property or to terminate an undesirable marriage. Muslim women could inherit property but only half as much as men could, while in matters of divorce there was no equality between men and women. Polygamy was prevalent among Hindus as well as Muslims.
Role of Women: Their glorification as wives and mothers was the only way in which society recognised the contribution of women as members of society.
Need for Change: It was clearly understood that improving the status of women was vital for reformed homes and reformed men, and that no country whose females were sunk in ignorance could ever make significant progress in civilisation.
Abolition of Sati: Influenced by the frontal attack launched by the enlightened Indian reformers led by Raja Rammohan Roy, the government declared the practice of sati illegal and punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide. The regulation of 1829 (Regulation XVII, A.D. 1829 of the Bengal Code) was initially applicable to Bengal Presidency alone but was extended to Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
Preventing Female Infanticide: The practice of murdering female infants was declared illegal and equivalent to murder by the Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804. An Act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies and provided for verification of female children for some years after birth.
Widow Remarriage: The Brahmo Samaj popularised widow remarriage, but it was mainly due to the efforts of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar that the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, was passed. This Act legalised marriage of widows and declared issues from such marriages as legitimate. Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage.
Child Marriage: The Native Marriage Act (1872) was aimed at prohibiting child marriage but had limited impact. The Age of Consent Act (1891) and the Sarda Act (1930) further pushed up the marriage age for girls and boys. In free India, the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978, raised the age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys from 18 to 21.
Education of Women: The Christian missionaries were the first to set up the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in 1819. The Bethune School (1849) was a significant milestone. Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with 35 girls’ schools in Bengal and is considered a pioneer of women’s education. The Indian Women’s University (1916) and Lady Hardinge Medical College (1916) further advanced women's education and health facilities.
Participation in Movements: Participation in the swadeshi and anti-partition movements, Home Rule movements, and various political and trade union movements was a major liberating experience for Indian women. Post-1918, they faced lathis and bullets, were jailed, and became actively involved in various movements.
Women's Organizations: In 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhuri convened the Bharat Stree Mahamandal, focusing on education for women, abolition of the purdah system, and improving the socio-economic and political status of women. Ramabai Ranade founded the Ladies Social Conference in 1904 and Pandita Ramabai Saraswati established the Arya Mahila Samaj.
National Council of Women in India: Formed in 1925 with significant figures like Mehribai Tata, Cornelia Sarabji, and Sarojini Naidu, this council focused on addressing purdah, caste differences, and education.
All India Women’s Conference (AIWC): Founded in 1927 by Margaret Cousins, AIWC worked towards a society based on principles of social justice, equal rights, and opportunities. It supported various legislative reforms, including the Sarda Act (1929), Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act (1937), and several other important acts.
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