French Revolution

The Storming of the Bastille

• • On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm.
  • The king had commanded troops to move into the city, spreading rumours of an army attack on citizens.
  • Approximately 7,000 men and women gathered to form a people's militia and searched government buildings for arms.
  • A group marched to the fortress-prison, Bastille, hoping to find ammunition. The commander was killed, and the prisoners were released.
  • The Bastille, hated as a symbol of despotic power, was demolished, and its fragments were sold as souvenirs.
• Riots in Paris and the Countryside
  • The days following the Bastille's fall saw rioting, fueled by protests against the high price of bread.
  • Historians later viewed these events as the start of a chain that led to the execution of the king.
• Louis XVI and the Financial Crisis
  • In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family became king at age 20, married to Marie Antoinette.
  • France's treasury was empty due to wars and the maintenance of an extravagant court.
  • Helping the American colonies added over 1 billion livres to an already massive debt.
  • To pay interest and maintain the army, the state increased taxes, burdening the third estate.



• The Society of Estates
  • French society was divided into three estates:
    • First estate: Clergy
    • Second estate: Nobility
    • Third estate: Peasants, workers, and middle-class professionals
  • Only the third estate paid taxes, including tithes to the church and direct taxes like the taille.
• The Struggle to Survive
  • The population rose from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789, causing a demand for foodgrains.
  • The price of bread rose sharply, and wages did not keep pace, leading to a subsistence crisis.
• The Growing Middle Class
  • The middle class emerged, earning wealth through trade and manufacturing.
  • Educated members of the third estate believed in merit-based society and opposed privileges by birth.
  • Philosophers like John Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu spread ideas of freedom, equality, and division of power.
  • The American Constitution inspired political thinkers in France.

Louis XVI and the Estates General

• • In France of the Old Regime, the monarch lacked the unilateral power to impose taxes.
  • A meeting of the Estates General was required to pass proposals for new taxes.
  • The Estates General included representatives from the three estates:
    • First Estate: Clergy (300 representatives).
    • Second Estate: Nobility (300 representatives).
    • Third Estate: Common people (600 representatives).



• The Third Estate and its Demands
  • The Third Estate represented the more prosperous and educated members of society but excluded peasants, artisans, and women.
  • They brought 40,000 letters outlining grievances and demands.
  • The Third Estate demanded voting by individual members rather than by estates, reflecting democratic ideals inspired by philosophers like Rousseau.
• The Tennis Court Oath
  • On 20 June 1789, members of the Third Estate assembled in an indoor tennis court and declared themselves the National Assembly.
  • They vowed not to disperse until they drafted a constitution to limit the monarch’s powers.
  • Leaders:
    • Mirabeau: A noble advocating for the end of feudal privileges.
    • Abbé Sieyès: A priest who authored the influential pamphlet *What is the Third Estate?*



• The Storming of the Bastille
  • On 14 July 1789, an agitated crowd stormed the Bastille, symbolizing resistance against royal oppression.
  • The countryside also erupted in revolts as peasants attacked chateaux, looted grain, and destroyed feudal records.
  • This widespread unrest forced Louis XVI to recognize the National Assembly.
• Abolition of Feudal Privileges
  • On 4 August 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudal obligations, taxes, and privileges of the clergy.
  • Church lands were confiscated, providing assets worth 2 billion livres to the government.
• The Constitution of 1791
  • The Constitution limited the monarch's powers by dividing them among:
    • Legislature: The National Assembly (745 members, indirectly elected).
    • Executive: The king and his ministers.
    • Judiciary: Independent judges.

  

  • Voting rights were limited to active citizens (men above 25 years who paid taxes equal to 3 days' wages).
  • Passive citizens, including women and children, had no voting rights.
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
  • The Constitution began with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
  • Key rights included:
    • Right to life.
    • Freedom of speech and opinion.
    • Equality before the law.
  • These rights were deemed natural, inalienable, and the state’s responsibility to protect.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

• Jean-Paul Marat’s Commentary on the Constitution

  

  • Jean-Paul Marat, a revolutionary journalist, expressed his views in his newspaper L’Ami du peuple (The Friend of the People).
  • Marat criticized the Constitution drafted by the National Assembly:
    • "The task of representing the people has been given to the rich."
    • "The lot of the poor and oppressed will never be improved by peaceful means alone."
    • "Here we have absolute proof of how wealth influences the law."
    • "Laws will last only as long as the people agree to obey them."
    • "When the people cast off the yoke of the aristocrats, they will also overthrow the owners of wealth."



• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
  • The Declaration outlined key principles of liberty, equality, and justice. Key articles include:
  • Article 1: Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
  • Article 2: The aim of every political association is to preserve the natural and inalienable rights of man:
    • Liberty
    • Property
    • Security
    • Resistance to oppression
  • Article 3: The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation. No group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
  • Article 4: Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
  • Article 5: The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
  • Article 6: Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation:
    • Personally
    • Through their representatives
    All citizens are equal before the law.
  • Article 7: No man may be accused, arrested, or detained, except in cases determined by the law.
  • Article 11: Every citizen may speak, write, and print freely. However, he must take responsibility for abuses of such liberty as determined by law.
  • Article 12: For the maintenance of public force and administrative expenses, a common tax is indispensable:
    • The tax must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.
  • Article 17: Property is a sacred and inviolable right:
    • No one may be deprived of property unless a legally established public necessity requires it.
    • In such cases, just compensation must be provided in advance.

Reading Political Symbols in the 18th Century

• • During the 18th century, most people could not read or write.
  • Images and symbols were commonly used to communicate important ideas.
  • The painting by Le Barbier conveys the content of the Declaration of Rights through various symbols:
• Symbols and Their Meanings
  • Snake Biting Its Tail to Form a Ring:
    • Symbol of Eternity.
    • A ring has neither beginning nor end.
  • Sceptre:
    • Symbol of royal power.
  • The Eye Within a Triangle Radiating Light:
    • The all-seeing eye represents knowledge.
    • The rays of the sun symbolize driving away the clouds of ignorance.
  • The Bundle of Rods or Fasces:
    • One rod can be easily broken, but not an entire bundle.
    • Symbolizes that strength lies in unity.
  • The Broken Chain:
    • Chains were used to fetter slaves.
    • A broken chain symbolizes the act of becoming free.
  • Red Phrygian Cap:
    • A cap worn by a slave upon becoming free.
  • Blue-White-Red:
    • The national colors of France.
  • The Winged Woman:
    • Personification of the law.
  • The Law Tablet:
    • Represents that the law is the same for all.
    • All individuals are equal before the law.

The Situation in France After the Revolution

• • Despite Louis XVI signing the Constitution, he secretly negotiated with the King of Prussia.
  • Rulers of neighboring countries were alarmed by the events in France and planned to send troops to suppress the revolution.
  • In April 1792, the National Assembly declared war on Prussia and Austria.
• War and Patriotism
  • Thousands of volunteers joined the army, viewing the conflict as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies.
  • They sang patriotic songs, including the Marseillaise, composed by poet Roget de L’Isle.
  • The Marseillaise, sung first by volunteers from Marseilles, became the national anthem of France.
• Impact of Revolutionary Wars
  • The wars caused economic hardships and losses.
  • While men fought at the front, women managed households and earned a living.
  • Many believed the revolution needed to go further, as the Constitution of 1791 granted political rights only to the wealthy.



• Political Clubs and Jacobins
  • Political clubs became crucial for discussing government policies and planning action.
  • The most influential club was the Jacobins, named after the former convent of St. Jacob in Paris.
  • Members:
    • Included small shopkeepers, artisans (shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers), servants, and daily-wage workers.
    • Led by Maximilian Robespierre.
    • Many Jacobins adopted long striped trousers, rejecting the aristocratic knee breeches, earning them the name sans-culottes (meaning "those without knee breeches").
• The Jacobin Insurrection
  • In the summer of 1792, Jacobins organized an uprising fueled by anger over food shortages and high prices.
  • On August 10, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king’s guards, and held the king hostage.
  • The royal family was imprisoned, and elections were held, granting voting rights to all men above 21 years, regardless of wealth.
• France Becomes a Republic
  • On September 21, 1792, the newly elected Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
  • In a republic, the government is elected by the people, with no hereditary monarchy.
• Execution of Louis XVI
  • Louis XVI was sentenced to death for treason.
  • On January 21, 1793, he was publicly executed at the Place de la Concorde.
  • Marie Antoinette, the queen, was executed shortly afterward.
• Conflicting Views on Liberty
  • Camille Desmoulins:
    • Argued that liberty embodies Happiness, Reason, Equality, and Justice.
    • Criticized the use of executions, stating that it creates more enemies.
  • Robespierre:
    • Advocated for the use of terror as a necessary tool to protect liberty and the republic.
    • Defined terror as "justice, swift, severe, and inflexible."

The Reign of Terror

• • The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror, characterized by extreme control and harsh punishments led by Robespierre.
• Enemies of the Republic
  • Robespierre targeted anyone deemed an "enemy" of the republic, including:
    • Ex-nobles and clergy.
    • Members of other political parties.
    • Members of his own party who disagreed with him.
  • Those arrested were imprisoned and tried by a revolutionary tribunal.
  • If found guilty, they were executed using the guillotine, a beheading device named after Dr. Guillotin.

  

• Economic and Social Policies
  • Robespierre’s government introduced strict economic regulations:
    • A maximum ceiling on wages and prices was imposed.
    • Meat and bread were rationed.
    • Peasants were forced to sell grain in cities at government-fixed prices.
    • Use of expensive white flour was banned; citizens had to eat pain d’égalité (equality bread) made of wholewheat.
  • Equality was enforced through social practices:
    • Traditional titles like "Monsieur" (Sir) and "Madame" (Madam) were replaced with "Citoyen" (Citizen) and "Citoyenne" (Citizen).
    • Churches were shut down, and their buildings repurposed as barracks or offices.
• Fall of Robespierre
  • Robespierre’s relentless pursuit of his policies led even his supporters to call for moderation.
  • In July 1794, Robespierre was convicted by a court, arrested, and executed via guillotine the following day.
• A Directory Rules France
  • The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power.
  • A new constitution was introduced, which:
    • Denied voting rights to non-propertied sections of society.
    • Provided for two elected legislative councils.
  • The councils appointed a Directory, an executive body of five members, to prevent concentration of power as under the Jacobins.
  • However, political instability emerged:
    • The Directors clashed with the legislative councils.
    • This instability paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

    

  • Despite these changes in government, ideals of freedom, equality before the law, and fraternity continued to inspire political movements in France and across Europe.

Women's Participation in the French Revolution

• • From the very beginning, women were active participants in the events that brought about important changes in French society. They hoped their involvement would pressurize the revolutionary government to introduce measures to improve their lives.
  • Most women of the third estate had to work for a living. They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits, and vegetables at the market, or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of prosperous people.

  

  • Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only the daughters of nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could study at a convent, after which their families arranged a marriage for them.
  • Working women also had to care for their families, cooking, fetching water, queuing for bread, and looking after the children. Their wages were lower than those of men.
  • In order to discuss and voice their interests, women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women's clubs came up in different French cities. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them.
• Women's Political Demands
  • One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men. Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly, and to hold political office.
  • In the early years, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of women. These included the creation of state schools, where schooling was made compulsory for all girls. Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will.
  • Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law. Divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both women and men.
  • Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses.



• Women’s Struggles During the Reign of Terror
  • Women’s struggle for equal political rights continued. During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering the closure of women's clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were arrested, and a number of them executed.
  • Women's movements for voting rights and equal wages continued through the next two hundred years in many countries. The fight for the vote was carried out through an international suffrage movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
  • It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
• Olympe de Gouges
  • Olympe de Gouges was one of the most important politically active women in revolutionary France. She protested against the Constitution and the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, as they excluded women from basic rights.
  • In 1791, she wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen, demanding that women be given the same political rights as men.
  • In 1793, she criticized the Jacobin government for forcibly closing down women's clubs. She was tried by the National Convention and charged with treason. Soon after, she was executed.
• Olympe de Gouges’ Declaration: Basic Rights
  • Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights.
  • The goal of all political associations is the preservation of the natural rights of woman and man: These rights are liberty, property, security, and above all, resistance to oppression.
  • The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation, which is nothing but the union of woman and man.
  • The law should be the expression of the general will; all female and male citizens should have a say either personally or by their representatives in its formulation; it should be the same for all. All female and male citizens are equally entitled to all honours and public employment according to their abilities and without any other distinction than that of their talents.
  • No woman is an exception; she is accused, arrested, and detained in cases determined by law. Women, like men, obey this rigorous law.



• Chaumette's Justification for Closing Women’s Clubs
  • Chaumette, in 1793, argued that nature had entrusted domestic duties to men and women had a place in the household. He condemned women who wished to enter political spaces, saying it was against nature.
• Slavery and Emancipation
  • One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. This included the abolition of slavery in colonies like Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo.
  • The triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas was the main system that supplied labor for French colonies. However, it was only in 1794 that the Convention legislated to free all slaves in French colonies.
  • Although slavery was reintroduced under Napoleon, it was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.
• Changes in Everyday Life
  • The revolutionary government passed laws that translated the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice. One important law was the abolition of censorship. All written material could now be published freely, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression as a natural right.
  • This freedom of the press meant that different viewpoints could be expressed. Plays, songs, and festive processions were a popular way for people to connect with the revolutionary ideas.