Explore the causes, key events, major figures, and long-term impact of the French Revolution, a defining moment in shaping modern political ideologies.

Spring of 1945:

• • An eleven-year-old German boy, Helmuth, overheard his parents' serious conversation.
  • His father, a prominent physician, debated with his wife whether to:
    • Kill the entire family
    • Commit suicide alone

  

  • The father feared revenge from the Allies, saying:
    • “Now the Allies will do to us what we did to the crippled and Jews.”
  • He spent his last happy day with Helmuth in the woods, singing old children's songs.
  • Later, the father shot himself in his office.
  • Helmuth saw his father's bloody uniform being burnt in the family fireplace.
  • Traumatized, Helmuth refused to eat at home for the next nine years, fearing his mother might poison him.
• Father's Role:
  • Helmuth’s father was a Nazi and a supporter of Adolf Hitler.
• Background on Nazis and Hitler:
  • Hitler aimed to:
    • Make Germany a mighty power
    • Conquer Europe
  • The Nazis engaged in:
    • Not just isolated acts, but a systematic structure of ideas about the world and politics.
• Germany's Surrender (May 1945):
  • Germany surrendered to the Allies.
  • In April 1945, Hitler, his propaganda minister Goebbels, and their families committed suicide in Berlin.

  

• The Nuremberg Trials:

  

  • An International Military Tribunal was set up to prosecute Nazi war criminals for:
    • Crimes against Peace
    • War Crimes
    • Crimes Against Humanity
  • Germany’s actions during the war raised serious moral and ethical questions and were condemned worldwide.
• The Genocidal War:
  • Under the shadow of the Second World War, Germany waged a genocidal war.
  • Mass murders included:
    • 6 million Jews
    • 200,000 Gypsies
    • 1 million Polish civilians
    • 70,000 Germans considered mentally and physically disabled
    • Innumerable political opponents
  • Nazis' method: Killing by gassing people in centers like Auschwitz.
• Punishment and Retribution:
  • The Nuremberg Tribunal sentenced:
    • 11 leading Nazis to death
    • Many others to life imprisonment
  • The punishment was inadequate compared to the brutality of the crimes.
  • The Allies avoided being as harsh on Germany as they had been after the First World War.
• The Rise of Nazi Germany:
  • Partly traced back to Germany’s experience at the end of the First World War.

Germany in the Early 20th Century

• • Germany, a powerful empire, fought in the First World War (1914-1918) alongside the Austrian Empire.
  • They fought against the Allies:
    • England
    • France
    • Russia
  • Both sides joined the war enthusiastically, hoping for a quick victory.
• Course of the War:
  • Germany made initial gains by occupying:
    • France
    • Belgium
  • The Allies, strengthened by the US entry in 1917, defeated Germany and the Central Powers in November 1918.
• Aftermath of Germany’s Defeat:
  • The defeat of Imperial Germany led to the abdication of the emperor.
  • Parliamentary parties seized the opportunity to recast German polity.
  • A National Assembly met at Weimar and established:
    • A democratic constitution with a federal structure.
    • Equal and universal voting rights for all adults, including women.
• Weimar Republic and Public Sentiment:
  • The Weimar Republic was unpopular among Germans due to:
    • The harsh terms imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.

    

  • The Treaty of Versailles (with the Allies):
    • Stripped Germany of:
      • Overseas colonies
      • 10% of its population
      • 13% of its territories
      • 75% of its iron
      • 26% of its coal
    • Imposed the War Guilt Clause, holding Germany responsible for:
      • The war
      • Damages suffered by Allied countries
    • Forced Germany to pay £6 billion in compensation.
    • Demilitarised Germany to weaken its power.
    • Allowed Allied armies to occupy the resource-rich Rhineland.
  • Many Germans blamed the Weimar Republic for:
    • Defeat in the war
    • The humiliation at Versailles
• Effects of the First World War:
  • The war had a devastating impact on Europe:
    • Psychologically
    • Financially
  • Europe transformed from a continent of creditors to one of debtors.
  • The infant Weimar Republic was burdened with:
    • War guilt
    • National humiliation
    • Massive financial compensation
  • Supporters of the Weimar Republic (Socialists, Catholics, and Democrats) were:
    • Mocked as the ‘November criminals’
    • Attacked by conservative nationalist circles
• Impact on Society and Politics:
  • Deep imprints of war on European society and polity:
    • Soldiers were placed above civilians.
    • Emphasis on being aggressive, strong, and masculine.
  • The media glorified:
    • Trench life, despite its misery (rats, poisonous gas, enemy shelling).
    • Aggressive war propaganda.
    • National honour.
  • Popular support grew for conservative dictatorships.
  • Democracy was a young and fragile idea that struggled to survive in interwar Europe.
• Political Radicalism and Economic Crises:
  • The birth of the Weimar Republic coincided with:

    

    • A revolutionary uprising by the Spartacist League.
    • Establishment of Soviets of workers and sailors, inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.

Birth of the Weimar Republic

• • Coincided with the revolutionary uprising of the Spartacist League, modeled on the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.
  • Soviets of workers and sailors were established in many cities.
  • The political atmosphere in Berlin was charged with demands for Soviet-style governance.
  • Opponents of this movement (Socialists, Democrats, Catholics):
    • Met in Weimar to establish a democratic republic.
    • Crushed the uprising with the help of the Free Corps (a war veterans organization).
  • The Spartacists, after the uprising, founded the Communist Party of Germany.
  • Communists and Socialists became irreconcilable enemies, weakening opposition to Hitler.
• Impact of the Treaty of Versailles:
  • A harsh and humiliating peace for Germany:
    • Lost:
      • Overseas colonies
      • 10% of its population
      • 13% of its territories
      • 75% of its iron
      • 26% of its coal
    • The Allied Powers:
      • Demilitarized Germany to weaken its power.
      • Imposed the War Guilt Clause, holding Germany responsible for the war and damages.
      • Forced Germany to pay £6 billion in reparations.
      • Occupied the resource-rich Rhineland during the 1920s.

      

  • Many Germans blamed the Weimar Republic for:
    • The defeat in the war
    • The humiliation at Versailles
• Economic Crisis of 1923:
  • Germany fought the war largely on loans and had to pay reparations in gold.
  • This depleted gold reserves while resources were scarce.
  • In 1923, Germany refused to pay reparations, leading to:
    • The French occupation of Ruhr to claim coal.
    • Germany's retaliation with passive resistance.
    • Reckless printing of paper currency, causing:

      

      • A collapse in the value of the German mark.
      • A hyperinflation crisis, where:
        • April: 1 USD = 24,000 marks
        • July: 1 USD = 353,000 marks
        • August: 1 USD = 4,621,000 marks
        • December: 1 USD = 98,860,000 marks
  • Prices of goods soared, with people using cartloads of currency for basic purchases.
  • The Dawes Plan (introduced by the USA) reworked reparation terms and eased the financial burden.
• The Years of Depression (1929–1932):
  • Initial stability (1924-1928) was dependent on short-term loans from the USA.
  • The Wall Street Exchange crash in 1929 led to:
    • The Great Economic Depression.
    • Massive unemployment and economic collapse worldwide.

    

  • Impact on Germany:
    • Industrial production fell to 40% of 1929 levels.
    • Unemployment rose to 6 million.
    • People resorted to:
      • Desperation (e.g., placards reading "Willing to do any work").
      • Queuing at employment exchanges.
      • Criminal activities due to lack of opportunities.
    • Middle classes and small businesses:
      • Faced anxiety of proletarianization (becoming part of the working or unemployed classes).
    • Peasants were affected by:
      • A sharp fall in agricultural prices.
    • Women faced despair, unable to provide for their families.
• Political Instability of the Weimar Republic:
  • Inherent defects in the Weimar Constitution:
    • Proportional representation made it difficult to achieve a majority, leading to weak coalitions.
    • Article 48 allowed the President to:
      • Impose emergencies.
      • Suspend civil rights.
      • Rule by decree.
  • The Republic saw 20 different cabinets in a short period, lasting on average 239 days each.
  • People lost confidence in democracy, which failed to address the crisis.

Background to Hitler’s Rise to Power

• • Economic, political, and societal crises created the conditions for Hitler’s ascent.
  • Born in 1889 in Austria, Hitler spent his youth in poverty.
  • World War I:
    • Enlisted in the army, served as a messenger, and rose to corporal.
    • Earned medals for bravery.
    • German defeat and Versailles Treaty deeply angered him.
  • In 1919, joined the German Workers’ Party and later transformed it into the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers’ Party).
• Early Nazi Efforts and Challenges:
  • In 1923, Hitler planned to:
    • Seize control of Bavaria.
    • March to Berlin and capture power.
  • Failed attempt led to his arrest and trial for treason; later released.
  • Nazis gained significant support only during the Great Depression of the 1930s.
  • Electoral results:
    • 1928: Nazi Party received 2.6% of votes in the Reichstag.
    • 1932: Became the largest party with 37% of votes.
• Reasons for Hitler's Popularity:
  • Powerful orator: His speeches moved people with promises of:
    • Building a strong nation.
    • Undoing the injustices of the Versailles Treaty.
    • Restoring German dignity.
    • Providing employment and securing the future of the youth.
    • Eliminating foreign influences and conspiracies.
  • New style of politics:

    

    • Massive rallies and public meetings demonstrated Nazi power and unity.
    • Symbolism:
      • Red banners with Swastika.
      • Nazi salute.
      • Ritualized applause after speeches.

      

  • Nazi propaganda projected Hitler as a messiah and savior, providing hope during crises.
• The Destruction of Democracy:
  • 30 January 1933: President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor.
  • After gaining power:
    • Moved to dismantle democracy.
    • Used the Reichstag fire to pass the Fire Decree (28 February 1933), which:
      • Suspended civil rights like freedom of speech, press, and assembly.
    • Targeted Communists, many of whom were sent to concentration camps.

    

  • 3 March 1933: The Enabling Act was passed, establishing a dictatorship:
    • Allowed Hitler to rule by decree.
    • Banned all political parties and trade unions except the Nazi Party.
    • State controlled the economy, media, army, and judiciary.
• Creation of the Nazi Police State:
  • Special security forces were formed to control society, including:
    • Gestapo (secret state police).
    • SS (protection squads).
    • Criminal police.
    • Security Service (SD).
  • These forces had extra-constitutional powers, enabling:

    

    • Arrests without legal procedures.
    • Detention in torture chambers or concentration camps.
    • Deportation and suppression without accountability.
  • The Nazi state became known as a criminal state.

Hitler’s Economic Policies

• • Responsibility for economic recovery was given to Hjalmar Schacht, an economist.
  • Schacht's goals:
    • Achieve full production and full employment.
    • Implemented a state-funded work-creation programme.
  • Key achievements:
    • Construction of famous German superhighways.
    • Introduction of the Volkswagen, the “people’s car.”
• Hitler’s Foreign Policy Successes:
  • Quick successes reversed Germany's fortunes:
    • 1933: Germany withdrew from the League of Nations.
    • 1936: Reoccupation of the Rhineland.
    • 1938: Integration of Austria with Germany under the slogan:
      • “One people, One empire, One leader.”
    • Seized Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia and later annexed the entire country.
  • England’s unspoken support enabled these actions, as many viewed the Versailles Treaty as too harsh.
• Shift Towards Militarism and Expansion:
  • Schacht advised against excessive rearmament due to deficit financing, but Hitler dismissed cautious approaches.
  • Chose war as a solution to the economic crisis and for territorial expansion:
    • September 1939: Germany invaded Poland, initiating war with France and England.
    • September 1940: Signed the Tripartite Pact with Italy and Japan, strengthening international power.
    • Installed puppet regimes across Europe, consolidating Nazi influence.
• Hitler’s Eastern Ambitions and the Soviet Conflict:
  • Long-term goal: Conquer Eastern Europe for:
    • Ensuring food supplies.
    • Providing “living space” for Germans.
  • June 1941: Germany attacked the Soviet Union, but this was a historic blunder:
    • Exposed the western front to British bombing.
    • Soviet Red Army crushed Germany at Stalingrad and pursued retreating forces to Berlin.
  • Outcome: Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe for half a century.
• US Involvement in the War:
  • The USA initially resisted involvement due to:
    • Economic challenges from World War I.
  • Japan's expansionist actions:
    • Occupation of French Indo-China.
    • Plans to attack US naval bases in the Pacific.
  • December 1941: Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, prompting US entry into World War II.

  

• End of the War:
  • May 1945: The war ended with:
    • Hitler’s defeat.
    • The US dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Nazi Ideology and Beliefs

• • Hitler’s worldview formed the basis of Nazi ideology.
  • Core beliefs:
    • No equality among people; society was based on a racial hierarchy.
    • At the top: Blond, blue-eyed Nordic German Aryans.
    • At the bottom: Jews, considered an “anti-race” and arch-enemies of Aryans.
    • Other races were placed in between, depending on physical features.
  • Hitler’s racism drew from:
    • Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection.
    • Herbert Spencer’s idea of survival of the fittest.
    • Twisted these ideas to justify imperialism and racial superiority.
  • The Nazi argument:
    • The strongest race would survive; weaker ones would perish.
    • The Aryans, as the finest race, must remain pure, dominate, and grow stronger.
• Lebensraum (Living Space):
  • Concept involved acquiring new territories for:
    • German settlement and expansion of the motherland.
    • Strengthening material resources and the power of the German nation.
  • Plan to extend German boundaries eastward, starting with Poland as an experimental lab.
• Establishment of the Racial State:
  • Goal: Create an exclusive racial community of “pure Germans.”
  • Methods:
    • Physically eliminate “undesirable” groups.
    • Promote the idea of “pure and healthy Nordic Aryans” as the only “desirable” people.
    • Under the Euthanasia Programme, those considered mentally or physically unfit were condemned to death.
  • Groups targeted as “undesirable”:
    • Jews: The primary victims, subjected to hatred based on pseudoscientific racial theories.
    • Gypsies and blacks: Persecuted as racial “inferiors.”
    • Russians and Poles: Considered subhuman, forced into slave labor, many died from starvation and hard work.
• Nazi Hatred of Jews:
  • Stemmed from:
    • Traditional Christian hostility towards Jews, seen as “killers of Christ” and usurers.
    • Historical practices:

      

      • Jews were barred from owning land, living in ghettos, and often faced persecution and expulsion.
    • Pseudoscientific racial theories claiming that conversion could not solve the “Jewish problem.”
  • Stages of persecution:
    • 1933-1938: Jews were terrorized, pauperized, and segregated, forcing many to leave Germany.
    • 1939-1945: Concentrated in specific areas and eventually exterminated in gas chambers in Poland.
• Under the Shadow of War:
  • Genocide and war became interconnected under the Nazis.
  • Poland was divided:
    • North-western Poland was annexed to Germany.
    • Poles were forcibly displaced, leaving their homes and properties to be occupied by ethnic Germans.
    • In other areas like the General Government, Poles and other “undesirables” were herded like cattle.
  • Nazi policies in occupied Poland:
    • Intellectuals were murdered to suppress Polish resistance.
    • Polish children who looked Aryan were forcibly taken from their mothers and tested:
      • If they passed racial tests, they were raised in German families.
      • If not, they were sent to orphanages where many perished.
    • The General Government:
      • Housed some of the largest ghettos and gas chambers.
      • Became the killing fields for Jews.

Execution: Step for Death

• Step for Death: Stage 1 - Exclusion (1933-1939)
  • Slogan: "You have no right to live among us as citizens."
  • The Nuremberg Laws (September 1935):
    1. Only persons of German or related blood were considered German citizens.
    2. Marriages between Jews and Germans were forbidden.
    3. Extramarital relations between Jews and Germans became a crime.
    4. Jews were forbidden to fly the national flag.
  • Other Legal Measures:
    • Boycott of Jewish businesses.
    • Expulsion from government services.
    • Forced selling and confiscation of Jewish properties.
  • Pogrom of November 1938: Known as ‘the night of broken glass’:
    • Jewish properties vandalized and looted.
    • Homes attacked, synagogues burnt.
    • Men arrested in large numbers.
• Step for Death: Stage 2 - Ghettoisation (1940-1944)
  • Slogan: "You have no right to live among us."
  • Marking Jews:
    • From September 1941, all Jews had to wear a yellow Star of David on their chests.
    • This mark was stamped on passports, legal documents, and houses.
  • Ghettoisation:
    • Jews were confined to Jewish houses or crowded ghettos like Lodz and Warsaw in the east.
    • Conditions in the ghettos:
      • Extreme misery, poverty, and deprivation.
      • Hunger, starvation, and disease were rampant due to poor hygiene and overcrowding.
    • Jews were forced to surrender all their wealth before entering the ghettos.
• Step for Death: Stage 3 - Annihilation (1941 onwards)
  • Slogan: "You have no right to live."
  • Mass Deportations:
    • Jews from ghettos, Jewish houses, and concentration camps were transported to death factories in goods trains.
    • Notable locations of death camps:
      • Belzek, Auschwitz, Sobibor, Treblinka, Chelmno, and Majdanek.
  • Extermination:
    • Jews were charred in gas chambers, with mass killings executed within minutes using scientific precision.
    • Concentration camps were enclosed with live wires to prevent escape.
    • Scenes outside gas chambers included piles of clothing, representing victims’ belongings.

Youth & Nazi Ideology

• Hitler's focus on youth: He aimed to establish a strong Nazi society by teaching children Nazi ideology, requiring control inside and outside schools.



• Schools under Nazism:
  • Teachers deemed 'unreliable' or Jewish were dismissed.
  • Children were segregated: Germans and Jews couldn’t interact.
  • 'Undesirable children' (Jews, disabled, Gypsies) were expelled.
  • In the 1940s, many were sent to gas chambers.
• 'Good German' children: Underwent Nazi schooling, including:
  • Textbooks rewritten to promote Nazi views.
  • Racial science justified Nazi racial theories.
  • Stereotypes about Jews were taught even in maths.
  • Children were taught loyalty, hatred for Jews, and to worship Hitler.
  • Sports nurtured aggression, with boxing encouraged for toughness.
• Youth organisations:
  • Children joined Jungvolk at age 10, Hitler Youth at 14.
  • They learned Nazi values: hatred for Jews, glorifying war, and violence.
  • After training, they joined Labour Service and then the armed forces.
• Hitler Youth: Founded in 1922, later renamed. Other youth groups were dissolved.
• Impact on children: How would students feel towards Jews after this indoctrination?
• Classroom scenes: Depictions of anti-Semitism in textbooks (e.g., *Der Giftpilz*, 1938, and *Trau keinem Jud auf gruner Heid*, 1936).
• New term: Jungvolk – Nazi youth groups for children under 14.
• The Nazi Cult of Motherhood:
  • Women were seen as different from men and must be mothers of pure Aryan children.
  • Boys were trained for aggression, girls for motherhood and racial purity.
• Events:
  • Robert Lay: Children were indoctrinated from a young age, from waving flags to military service.
  • Boys took an oath to Hitler, pledging loyalty and even readiness to die for him.
• Hitler’s speech on women: Women’s role was motherhood; men fought in wars. Every child born was a battle for survival.
• Motherhood in Nazi Germany: Women producing 'racially desirable' children were rewarded with honours and privileges. Those who had undesirable children were punished.
• Aryan women’s conduct: Those who interacted with Jews, Poles, or Russians were severely punished, including public shaming and loss of honour.

The Art of Propaganda

• The Art of Propaganda
  • The Nazi regime used language and media with care, and often to great effect. The terms they coined to describe their various practices are not only deceptive. They are chilling.
  • Terminology:
    • Mass killings were termed special treatment, final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled), selection and disinfections.

    

    • 'Evacuation' meant deporting people to gas chambers.
    • Gas chambers were called ‘disinfection-areas’, resembling bathrooms with fake showerheads.
  • Media was carefully used to win support for the regime and popularize its worldview, spreading Nazi ideas through:
    • Visual images
    • Films
    • Radio
    • Posters
    • Catchy slogans
    • Leaflets
  • In posters, groups identified as the ‘enemies’ of Germans were stereotyped, mocked, abused, and described as evil:
    • Socialists and liberals were represented as weak and degenerate, attacked as malicious foreign agents.
    • Propaganda films were made to create hatred for Jews, the most infamous being The Eternal Jew.
    • Orthodox Jews were stereotyped and marked with flowing beards and kaftans, even though German Jews were highly assimilated and difficult to distinguish.
    • Jews were referred to as vermin, rats, and pests.
    • Jews' movements were compared to those of rodents.
  • The Nazis worked on people's emotions, turning their hatred and anger at those marked as ‘undesirable’.
• Nazi Propaganda Appeal:
  • The Nazis made equal efforts to appeal to all sections of the population:
    • They suggested that only Nazis could solve all their problems.
• Views on Women in Nazi Germany:
  • Hitler stated that the woman is the most stable element in preserving a folk, as she bears children who will be affected by suffering.
  • Women were integrated into the struggle of the racial community according to Nazi ideology.
• Nazi Propaganda and Different Sections:
  • The Nazi leaflet from 1932 targeted German farmers, positioning National Socialism as the solution to dangers posed by American capitalism and Marxism.
  • The Nazis used posters to appeal to various groups, including workers and peasants, showcasing Hitler as a hero and their potential savior from foreign economic systems.
• Timeline of Key Events in Nazi Germany:

  

  • August 1, 1914: First World War begins.
  • November 9, 1918: Germany capitulates, ending the war and the Weimar Republic is proclaimed.
  • January 30, 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.
  • September 1, 1939: Germany invades Poland, beginning WWII.
  • June 22, 1941: Germany invades the USSR.
  • June 23, 1941: Mass murder of Jews begins.
  • May 8, 1945: Allied victory in Europe.
• Public Reactions to Nazism:
  • Many Germans adopted Nazi ideology and language, expressing anger and hatred toward Jews.
  • Some Germans resisted Nazism, but most were passive onlookers, too afraid to protest.
  • Pastor Niemoeller described the silence and inaction of ordinary Germans in the face of Nazi atrocities.
  • Erna Kranz, a German teenager, reflects on how Nazism brought hope and prosperity to many, but was blind to the suffering of others.
• The Impact on Jews:
  • Jews began internalizing Nazi stereotypes, even in their dreams, as described by Charlotte Beradt in her book The Third Reich of Dreams.
  • Jews died many deaths mentally before being sent to the gas chambers.
• Holocaust Documentation and Memory:
  • After the war, the world came to realize the horrors of the Holocaust, despite the Nazi efforts to destroy evidence.
  • Many Holocaust survivors preserved their experiences in diaries, notebooks, and archives.
  • Holocaust memory lives on through memoirs, fiction, documentaries, memorials, and museums around the world.
• Gandhi’s Letter to Hitler:
  • Gandhi appealed to Hitler to stop the war in the name of humanity and warned of the destructive nature of violence.
  • He urged Hitler to adopt non-violence and questioned the morality of a legacy built on cruel deeds.