The Outbreak of World War 1: Causes and Early Tensions
The war began in 1914 in Europe and soon spread worldwide, marking a turning point in world history.
It was a total war where all the resources of the warring states were mobilized.
The war affected the global economy, causing casualties among the civilian population due to bombings, famines, and epidemics, which were much higher than the casualties suffered by the armies.
The war was fought across Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, making it the First World War.
Imperialist Rivalries
The war was driven by imperialist rivalries and conflicts among the imperialist countries.
Earlier imperialist conflicts were resolved through peaceful settlements, but by the end of the 19th century, most of Asia and Africa were already divided among imperialist countries, and further conquests could only occur through redivision of territories.
Germany's Role in Imperialism
Germany entered the scramble for colonies late but made significant economic progress by 1914, surpassing Britain and France in iron and steel production.
Germany, unable to acquire many colonies, sought to expand in the east and aimed to control the Ottoman Empire's economy.
The construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway was planned, which alarmed Britain, France, and Russia, as it would threaten their imperialist ambitions in the region.
Other Imperialist Powers
Other imperialist countries like Italy, France, Russia, and Japan had their own ambitions in Asia, Africa, and the Ottoman Empire.
Italy coveted Tripoli in North Africa, and France aimed to add Morocco to her territories.
Russia had imperialist ambitions in Iran, the Ottoman Empire, and the Far East, which conflicted with those of Britain, Germany, and Austria.
Japan sought expansion in the Far East and was building influence after defeating Russia in the 1904-05 war.
Britain's Position
Britain, with its vast empire, felt threatened by the rise of other imperialist nations and sought to defend its empire and global trade.
Britain viewed the expansion of other powers as a direct challenge to its control over the lifeline of its empire.
Austria and the United States
Austrian ambitions focused on the Ottoman Empire, while the United States, having become a powerful nation, sought to preserve its independence in trade.
The U.S. considered the expansion of other major powers' influence as a threat to its own interests.
The European Battlefront: Key Conflicts and Power Struggles
Besides the conflicts resulting from rivalries over colonies and trade, there were conflicts among the major European powers over certain developments within Europe.
There were six major powers in Europe at this time—Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France, and Italy.
One of the questions with which almost all these countries got involved concerned the countries comprising the Balkan Peninsula in Europe.
The Balkan countries had been under the rule of Ottoman Turks. However, in the nineteenth century, the Ottoman rule had begun to collapse.
There were revolts by various nationalities for independence.
The Russian Czars hoped that these areas would come under their control once the Ottomans were ousted from there.
They encouraged a movement called the Pan-Slav movement which was based on the theory that all the Slavs of eastern Europe were one people.
Many areas in Austria-Hungary were inhabited by the Slavs. Russia therefore encouraged movements both against the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary.
The major Balkan country, Serbia, led the movement for uniting the areas inhabited by the Slavs in the Ottoman Empire as well as in Austria-Hungary.
The Serbian nationalism was encouraged by Russia.
Other major European powers were alarmed at the growth of Russian influence in the Balkans.
They wanted to check the Russian influence, while Austria-Hungary had plans of expansion in this area.
Corresponding to the Pan-Slav movement, there was a Pan-German movement which aimed at the expansion of Germany all over central Europe and in the Balkans.
Italy claimed certain areas which were under Austrian rule.
France hoped to recover not only Alsace-Lorraine which she had lost to Germany in 1871, but also to wreak vengeance on Germany for the humiliating defeat that she had suffered in the war with Germany in 1870-71.
Formation of Alliances
The conflicts within Europe and the conflicts over colonies mentioned earlier had begun to create a very tense situation in Europe from the last decade of the nineteenth century.
European countries began to form themselves into opposing groups.
They also started spending vast sums of money to increase the size of their armies and navies, to develop new and more deadly weapons, and to generally prepare themselves for war.
Europe was gradually becoming a vast armed camp.
Simultaneously, propaganda for war, to breed hatred against other countries, to paint one’s own country as superior to others, and to glorify war, was started in each country.
There were, of course, people who raised their voice against the danger of war and against militarization.
You have read of the attitude of the Second International and the various socialist parties.
But soon all these voices were to be drowned in the drumbeats of war.
Opposing Alliances and Arms Race
The opposing groups of countries or alliances that were formed in Europe not only added to the danger of war, but also made it inevitable that when the war broke out it would assume a worldwide magnitude.
European countries had been forming and reforming alliances since the nineteenth century.
Finally, in the first decade of the twentieth century, two groups of countries or alliances emerged and faced each other with their armed might.
In 1882 was formed the Triple Alliance comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
However, Italy's loyalty to this Alliance was uncertain as her main aim was to gain territories in Europe from Austria-Hungary and in conquering Tripoli with French support.
As opposed to this, emerged the Triple Entente comprising France, Russia, and Britain in 1907.
In theory, it was only a loose group based on mutual understanding as the word ‘Entente’ (meaning ‘an understanding’) indicates.
The emergence of these two hostile camps made it inevitable that a conflict involving any one of these countries would become an all-European war.
As the aims of the countries in these camps included the extension of their colonial possessions, an all-European war almost certainly would become a world war.
The formation of these hostile camps was accompanied by a race to build more and more deadly weapons and have larger and larger armies and navies.
European Crises and Secret Treaties
A series of crises took place during the years preceding the war.
These crises added to the bitterness and tension in Europe and engendered national chauvinism.
European countries also entered into secret treaties to gain territories at the expense of others.
Often, these secret treaties leaked out and fear and suspicion grew in each country about such treaties.
These fears and suspicions brought the danger of war near.
Key Events and Incidents Leading to World War 1
Incidents Preceding the War
Several incidents heightened tensions and eventually led to the outbreak of war. One significant clash occurred over Morocco.
Clash Over Morocco
In 1904, Britain and France entered a secret agreement, where Britain was given a free hand in Egypt, and France was allowed to take over Morocco.
Germany learned of the agreement and, angered by it, the German emperor visited Morocco, offering the Sultan full support for Morocco’s independence.
The standoff over Morocco nearly led to war but was avoided when France occupied most of Morocco in 1911, giving Germany part of the French Congo in exchange.
Even though the war was averted, the situation remained tense with countries preparing for war.
Other Incidents in the Balkans
In 1908, Austria annexed the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which Serbia wanted, with Russia’s support for a united Slav state.
Russia threatened war over the annexation, but Germany’s support for Austria forced Russia to back down.
This incident worsened relations between Serbia and Austria, and between Russia and Germany, further escalating tensions.
In 1912, the Balkan Wars began. Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece fought against the Ottoman Empire, pushing Turkey out of most of its European territories.
In a second Balkan War, these countries fought over how to divide the newly gained territories. Austria helped make Albania independent, which thwarted Serbia’s ambitions and worsened relations.
The Outbreak of War
The war was triggered by an incident that might not have escalated under normal circumstances. On 28 June 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia.
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and issued an ultimatum. Serbia refused to accept some of the demands, particularly those against its sovereignty.
On 28 July 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia, leading to a series of rapid escalations. Russia, which had pledged to support Serbia, began military preparations.
On 1 August 1914, Germany declared war on Russia, and on 3 August, declared war on France. German troops entered Belgium to advance toward France, prompting Britain to declare war on Germany on 4 August 1914.
Other countries soon joined the conflict, including Japan, which declared war on Germany to capture German colonies in the Far East, and Turkey and Bulgaria, which joined Germany's side.
Italy, despite being part of the Triple Alliance, initially remained neutral but eventually entered the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1915.
The Great War Unfolds: Major Battles and Turning Points of World War 1
Germany had hoped that through a lightning strike through Belgium, she would be able to defeat France within a few weeks and then turn against Russia. The plan seemed to succeed for a while, and the German troops were within 20 km of Paris.
Russia had opened attacks on Germany and Austria, and some German troops had to be diverted to the eastern front. Soon the German advance on France was halted, and the war in Europe entered a long period of stalemate.
In the meantime, the war had spread to many other parts of the world, and battles were fought in West Asia, Africa, and the Far East.
Trench Warfare and Stalemate
After the German advance had been halted, a new type of warfare developed. The warring armies dug trenches from which they conducted raids on each other. The kind of warfare that the armies were used to earlier — fighting in the open — almost disappeared.
On the Western Front, which included eastern France and Belgium, the troops of the warring sides dug trenches and continued their raids on each other’s positions. For about four years, neither side could dislodge the other.
The European countries made use of the troops recruited from their colonies in the war. Labour from colonies was also used to dig trenches in Europe.
Eastern Front and Other Theatres of War
On the Eastern Front, Germany and Austria succeeded in repulsing the Russian attack and capturing parts of the Russian Empire. They were also successful against Rumania, Serbia, and Italy.
Outside Europe, there were campaigns against the Ottoman Empire in Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, and against Germany and Turkey in Iran, where they were trying to establish their influence.
Japan occupied German possessions in East Asia, and Britain and France seized most of the German colonies in Africa.
New Weapons and Technology
A large number of new weapons were introduced. The machine gun and liquid fire were two such weapons. For the first time, aircrafts were used in warfare and for bombing the civilian population.
The British introduced the use of the tank, which was to become a major weapon later. Both the warring groups tried to block each other’s supplies of food, manufactures, and arms, and sea warfare played an important part in this.
Submarines called U-boats were used by Germany on a large scale not only to destroy enemy ships but also ships of neutral countries heading for British ports.
Another horrible weapon used in the war was poison gas. The war dragged on, taking a toll of hundreds of thousands of human lives.
The Entry of the United States
On 6 April 1917, the United States of America declared war on Germany. The USA had become the main source of arms and other essential supplies for the Entente countries.
In 1915, the German U-boats had sunk a British ship, Lusitania. Among the 1153 passengers killed were 128 Americans. The Americans were generally sympathetic to Britain, and this incident further roused anti-German feelings in the USA.
Economic considerations had turned them even more in favour of the Entente countries. These countries had raised vast amounts of loans in the USA to pay for the arms and other goods bought by them.
Many Americans had subscribed to these loans, which could be paid back only if these countries won the war. There was also a fear that if Germany won the war, she would become a serious rival to the USA.
The sinking of ships, including American ships carrying American citizens, by the German U-boats finally led USA to join the war.
Russian Withdrawal and the Revolution
Another major development that took place in 1917 was the withdrawal of Russia from the war after the October Revolution.
The Russian revolutionaries had opposed the war from the beginning, and under the leadership of Lenin, had decided to transform it into a revolutionary war to overthrow the Russian autocracy and to seize power.
The Russian Empire had suffered serious reverses in the war. Over 600,000 Russian soldiers had been killed. The day after the Bolshevik government came to power, it issued the Decree on Peace with proposals to end the war without any annexations and indemnities.
Russia decided to withdraw from the war and signed a peace treaty with Germany in March 1918.
Realizing that the Russian government was not prepared to continue the war, Germany imposed terms which were very harsh on Russia. But the Russian government accepted these terms.
The Entente powers, which were opposed to the revolution in Russia and to the Russian withdrawal from the war, started their armed intervention in Russia in support of the elements which were opposed to the revolution.
This led to a civil war which lasted for three years and ended with the defeat of foreign intervention and of those Russians who had taken up arms against the revolutionary government.
Negotiations and Diplomacy: Efforts to End World War 1
In early 1917, socialist parties proposed an international socialist conference to draft peace proposals that avoided annexations and recognized the right of peoples to self-determination. However, the conference could not be held.
The Bolshevik government in Russia proposed a peace based on the self-determination of peoples, without annexations and indemnities. These proposals were welcomed by many people but rejected by the governments of warring countries.
The Pope also made peace proposals, but they were not taken seriously.
Despite these efforts, anti-war feelings grew among the people, leading to widespread unrest, disturbances, and mutinies. In some countries, following the Russian Revolution, unrest took the form of uprisings to overthrow governments.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
In January 1918, US President Woodrow Wilson proposed a peace programme, known as Wilson’s Fourteen Points. These points included:
Open negotiations between states
Freedom of navigation
Reduction of armaments
Independence of Belgium
Restoration of Alsace Lorraine to France
Creation of independent states in Europe
Formation of an international organization to guarantee state independence
Some of these points were accepted when the peace treaties were signed at the end of the war.
The Military Offensive and Collapse of Germany
In July 1918, Britain, France, and the USA launched a military offensive. Germany and her allies began to collapse.
Bulgaria withdrew from the war in September, and Turkey surrendered in October.
Political Discontent in Austria-Hungary and Germany
Political discontent was rising in Austria-Hungary and Germany. On 3 November, the emperor of Austria-Hungary surrendered.
In Germany, a revolution broke out, and the German emperor Kaiser William II fled to Holland.
The new German government signed an armistice on 11 November 1918, officially ending the war.
Global Jubilation
The news of the end of the war was received with tremendous jubilation all over the world.
The Versailles Treaty and the Peace Conference: Shaping the Post-War World
The victorious powers or the Allies met in a conference in Versailles (a suburb of Paris) and later in Paris, between January and June 1919. Though 27 countries were represented, the terms of the peace treaties were decided by three countries: Britain, France, and the USA.
The main figures in framing the terms of the treaties were Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Britain, and George Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France.
The defeated countries, including Germany, Austria-Hungary, and others, were not represented at the conference, and Russia was also excluded from the discussions.
The terms of the treaties were imposed on the defeated countries by the victors, rather than through negotiations between both parties.
The Treaty of Versailles
The main treaty, the Treaty of Versailles, was signed with Germany on 28 June 1919. The Republican government of Germany was forced to sign under the threat of invasion.
The treaty declared Germany and her allies guilty of aggression and included several key provisions:
Alsace Lorraine was returned to France.
The Saar coal mines were ceded to France for 15 years, while the area was governed by the League of Nations.
Germany ceded territories to Denmark, Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.
The Rhine valley was to be demilitarized.
Germany’s army was limited to 100,000 troops, and the country was not allowed to have an air force or submarines.
Germany was dispossessed of all its colonies, which were taken over by the victors, including territories in Africa and the Pacific.
Reparations were set at $6,500,000,000, to cover the damages suffered by the Allies during the war.
Treaties with Other Defeated Powers
Austro-Hungary was broken up, and Austria was required to recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. It also had to cede territories to these countries and to Italy.
The Balkans saw the creation of new states and the transfer of territories.
The Ottoman Empire was completely dismembered. Britain took control of Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq), while Syria went to France as mandates.
The remaining Turkish territories were divided between Greece and Italy, and Turkey was reduced to a small state.
Mustapha Kemal led a revolution in Turkey, deposed the Sultan, and declared Turkey a republic in 1922. Turkey regained control of Asia Minor and Constantinople (Istanbul), and the Allies were forced to abandon the earlier treaty.
The Covenant of the League of Nations
An important part of the peace treaties was the Covenant of the League of Nations. Wilson’s Fourteen Points had proposed the creation of an international organization to preserve peace and guarantee the independence of all states. This led to the formation of the League of Nations.
The League’s objectives included the preservation of peace, the peaceful settlement of international conflicts, and binding its members not to resort to war. One important provision was the imposition of sanctions on any country that committed aggression.
The International Labour Organization was established under the League to improve labor and social conditions worldwide. Today, it is a specialized agency of the United Nations.
Limitations of the League of Nations
Despite hopes for a truly effective world organization, the League was not successful. Key nations, such as Germany and the Soviet Union, were not allowed membership for many years, and the United States ultimately chose not to join.
The League struggled to prevent aggression in the 1930s, with many countries ignoring or defying its authority.
Colonial Redistribution
The peace treaties also dealt with the colonies of the defeated powers. Secret agreements made by the Allies were exposed by the Soviet government, revealing the imperialist nature of the war.
Despite claims by President Wilson and others that the war was fought for freedom and democracy, the treaties resulted in the redistribution of colonies among the victorious powers. These colonies were not annexed but were classified as mandates and governed as colonies by the Allies.
The Soviet Union repudiated the secret agreements and did not receive any spoils promised to the Russian emperor.
World War 1: The Human Toll and Lasting Social Consequences
The First World War was the most destructive war ever witnessed, with human losses estimated between nine million and several million more becoming invalids.
The civilian population suffered greatly due to air raids, epidemics, and famines, adding to the overall devastation.
Economies of many countries were severely affected, resulting in serious social problems.
Political Changes and the End of Dynasties
The war resulted in the downfall of three major ruling dynasties: the Romanovs in Russia, the Hohenzollerns in Germany, and the Habsburgs in Austria-Hungary.
By the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire's rule ended in Turkey, leading to the formation of new independent states such as Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
Poland was reformed as an independent state after having been divided among Russia, Austria, and Prussia in the 18th century.
Shift in Global Power
The end of the war marked the decline of European supremacy in the world, with Europe being economically and militarily surpassed by the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union soon became a major world power, further contributing to the shifting global balance of power.
The war period saw the rise of nationalist movements in Asia and Africa, spurred by the weakening of European powers and the Soviet Union's support for national independence struggles.
Colonial Impact and Growing Nationalist Movements
During the war, European powers exploited their colonies' resources and forced soldiers and laborers to participate, causing resentment among colonial populations.
The role of Asian and African soldiers in the war helped to challenge the myth of European superiority, leading to the growing nationalist movements in these regions.
Many colonial peoples had hoped for independence post-war, but those hopes were crushed as colonial rule persisted, causing increasing nationalist sentiment.
Failure of the Peace Treaties to End Future Conflicts
The peace treaties, intended to end future wars, failed to create lasting peace due to harsh provisions imposed on the defeated countries, which sowed seeds of future conflicts.
Some victorious countries also felt betrayed by the treaties, as their hopes for territorial gains and political changes were unmet.
Imperialism was not dismantled; instead, the victorious powers expanded their territories, and the rivalries between imperialist nations remained unchanged.
The harsh conditions and unresolved tensions set the stage for future global conflicts, particularly with the emergence of the Soviet Union, which was seen as a threat by many nations.
Long-Term Impact and Prelude to Another World War
The unresolved issues from the peace treaties, combined with rising tensions between the Soviet Union and capitalist countries, led to the conditions that would eventually result in another world war.
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