The Arab invasion of Sindh marked the beginning of Muslim incursions into India. In 712 A.D., Muhammad-bin-Qasim led the Arabs in a successful attack on India. However, their invasions were limited to a small region, and their rule was short-lived, making the conquest relatively insignificant in terms of long-lasting impact.
According to historian Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “The story of Muhammad-bin-Qasim’s invasion of Sindh is one of the romances of history. His blooming youth, his dash and heroism, his noble conduct, and his tragic fall have made his career seem like that of a martyr.”
Mahmud of Ghazni, the most notable ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, reigned from 997 A.D. to 1030 A.D.. In the name of Islam, he expanded his empire by conquering Eastern Iran and ravaging the northwestern Indian subcontinent. Through his military prowess, he transformed Ghazni into a wealthy and influential capital.
The arrival of Sultan Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghori on the political scene marked the beginning of a lasting Muslim rule in India. He established the foundations of the Muslim empire by training competent successors, who consolidated the empire after his assassination.
The Arab invasion of Sindh in 711 A.D. was triggered by several factors:
After the death of Prophet Muhammad, the Arabs expanded their empire, conquering regions like Persia and Herat. After these conquests, they shifted their focus to India, attracted by its wealth and strategic importance.
The invasion of Sindh was part of the Arabs’ broader aggressive expansion policy, which had already brought vast regions of Western Asia, Africa, and Europe under their control.
Driven by religious zeal, the Arabs aimed to spread Islam. With Persia and Herat under their control, India naturally became their next target in their mission of religious expansion.
Arab merchants had long maintained commercial ties with the western coast of India. Familiar with the immense wealth of the region, the prospect of looting and gaining riches further motivated the Arab invasions.
The immediate reason for the invasion was the plundering of Arab ships by Sindh pirates near the coast of Debal. According to accounts, the king of Ceylon had sent valuable gifts to Hajaj, the Viceroy of Iraq, which included orphan daughters of deceased Muslim merchants. These ships were attacked and plundered by pirates off the Sindh coast.
Another version suggests that the Khalifa had sent agents to India to purchase female slaves and commodities. Upon reaching Debal, the principal port of King Dahir, these agents were also attacked and looted by pirates. When Hajaj demanded compensation, Dahir refused, claiming he had no control over the pirates. This refusal led Hajaj to seek the Khalifa’s approval for a military expedition against King Dahir.
The first Arab expedition, led by Ubaidullah, failed to defeat Dahir’s forces.
The second attempt under Budail also ended in failure.
Finally, Hajaj sent a strong army under the leadership of his son-in-law, Muhammad-bin-Qasim, which resulted in a successful conquest.
He also received reinforcements from the Governor of Makran, including:
Abdul Aswad Jahan joined Muhammad-bin-Qasim at the Sindh border, and as the campaign progressed, the army grew to 50,000 soldiers by the time they reached Multan.
There is a difference of opinion regarding the circumstances that led to the death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim. According to one view, Surya Devi and Parmal Devi, the daughters of Dahir, were sent as presents to the Khalifa by Qasim.
The Khalifa selected Surya Devi to share his bed, but she claimed she was unworthy of the honor, stating that Qasim had dishonored both her and her sister before sending them to the Khalifa. This accusation deeply enraged the Khalifa, who immediately issued a handwritten order commanding that Muhammad-bin-Qasim be sewn up in a raw hide and sent to the capital.
When the order reached Muhammad-bin-Qasim, he obediently complied. He had himself sewn up in the hide, and his body was placed inside a box which was then sent to Damascus. Upon its arrival, the box was opened in the presence of Surya Devi and the Khalifa, who presented the lifeless body as evidence of his absolute authority and the unwavering obedience of his servants.
At that moment, Surya Devi admitted to the Khalifa that her accusation against Muhammad-bin-Qasim was false. She had fabricated the story as an act of revenge. This revelation further infuriated the Khalifa, leading him to order that both sisters be tied to the tails of horses and dragged to their deaths.
Another perspective suggests that the death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim was the result of intense political rivalries within the court of the Khalifa. There were two opposing factions, one of which was hostile towards Hajaj, the governor of the eastern provinces and the cousin and father-in-law of Qasim.
The rivals of Hajaj manipulated the Khalifa by poisoning his mind against Qasim. Eventually, this resulted in the issuance of the order to torture Muhammad-bin-Qasim to death.
The Arab invasion marked the first Muslim military expedition into the Indian territories. Despite the initial military success, the Arabs failed to expand their dominion beyond Sind and Multan. The political and religious unity among the Arabs, led by the spread of Islam, did not significantly influence the Indian subcontinent.
According to Sir Wellesley Haig, the rise of Islam is considered one of the marvels of history. From being expelled from their homeland in 622 A.D., the followers of the Prophet Muhammad expanded their empire from the Atlantic to the Indus River and from the Caspian Sea to the Nile.
The Rajput rulers of the North and East were formidable in defending against the Arabs. Other Indian rulers viewed the defeat of Dahir as a localized event, and the Arabs were unable to extend their territories further.
Due to the limited financial resources of Sind, the Arabs faced challenges in sustaining administrative expenses. Entering India through Sind proved to be a strategic mistake, limiting their further expansion.
Politically, the Arab conquest of Sind was considered minor. Lane Poole famously remarked that the Arab conquest of Sind was "a mere episode in the history of India and Islam, a triumph without result."
The conquest initiated by Muhammad-bin-Qasim was abruptly cut short by his death. After the passing of the Khalifa in 715 A.D., his son Omar II succeeded him. Jai Singh, the son of Dahir, embraced Islam, but his conversion did not save him from being killed by Junaid, the governor of Sind under Khalifa Hisham (724-743 A.D.).
After the Abbasid Revolution in 750 A.D., the Omayyids were overthrown. The control of the Khalifas weakened, leading the governors and chiefs of Sind to assert independence. By 781 A.D., the authority of the Khalifa in Sind had practically ceased.
Two independent Arab kingdoms emerged: one based in Mansurah, governing Sind up to Aror on the Indus River, and the other in Multan.
The Arab invasion had minimal effect on Indian society and religion. Although some Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam, the majority maintained their cultural identity. Conscious of their rich heritage, they resisted cultural assimilation by the Arabs.
The Arabs, however, gained valuable knowledge from their contact with Indian civilization. They learned extensively about Indian philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.
Khalifa Harun-ul-Rashid invited numerous scholars to Baghdad, including renowned Indian scholars like Manaka, Bhala, and Bazigar. An Indian physician named Dhana served as the chief medical officer at a hospital in Baghdad and successfully treated Harun-ul-Rashid of a severe illness.
Prominent Indian works like the Brahma Siddhanta and Khanda Khadyaka by Brahmagupta were translated into Arabic. This facilitated the dissemination of Indian mathematical concepts and numerals across the Arab world.
Indian architects and artisans were invited to Baghdad to contribute to the construction of mosques and buildings. Indian paintings also significantly influenced Arab artistic styles, enriching their cultural heritage.
The Arab invasion highlighted the vulnerabilities of Indian rulers. The lack of unity and weak military strategies exposed the region to external threats, encouraging future Muslim invasions.
The conquest of Sind spread tales of India's wealth and political disunity across the Muslim world. This further tempted subsequent Muslim rulers to invade and conquer Indian territories for both wealth and religious expansion.
Mahmud of Ghazni, whose full name was Dawlah Abdul-Qasim Mahmud-bin-Sabuktegin, was born in 971 A.D. in the city of Ghazni, located in present-day South-East Afghanistan.
His father, Abu Mansur Sabuktegin, was a former Mamluk warrior-slave who established control over Ghazni in 977 A.D. after the decline of the Samanid dynasty of Bukhara (now in Uzbekistan).
Sabuktegin expanded his dominion by conquering major cities such as Kandahar, forming the core of the Ghaznavid Empire.
Not much is documented about Mahmud's childhood, except that he had a younger brother named Ismail.
Despite being the eldest son, Mahmud was not the child of Sabuktegin's principal wife. Consequently, the principal queen influenced Sabuktegin to nominate Ismail as his successor.
Ismail was chosen partly because he did not have slave ancestry from both parental sides, unlike Mahmud.
Following the death of Sabuktegin in 997 A.D., Ismail ascended the throne. However, Mahmud, who was stationed at Nishapur (now in Iran), contested his brother's claim.
In 998 A.D., Mahmud marched towards Ghazni to challenge Ismail’s authority. After a successful military campaign, he defeated his brother's forces and seized the throne.
He imprisoned Ismail for life and ruled the Ghaznavid Empire from 998 A.D. to 1030 A.D.
During his reign, Mahmud of Ghazni expanded his empire to encompass large parts of Afghanistan, Eastern Iran, Pakistan, and North-Western India.
In the name of Islam, he led numerous campaigns, primarily aiming to plunder the immense wealth of temples and cities in the Indian subcontinent.
Despite his conquests, Mahmud maintained a symbolic allegiance to the Caliph. He was the first ruler in Indian history to assume the title of "Sultan," meaning "authority."
Mahmud is infamous in Indian history for his seventeen invasions, during which he looted vast amounts of wealth from temples and kingdoms.
In 994 A.D., Mahmud of Ghazni assisted his father, Sabuktegin, in capturing Khorasan from rebel forces.
The Samanid state was highly unstable at the time, with leaders like Abu’l-Qasim Simjuri vying for control.
Following his father’s death, Mahmud seized power in 998 A.D. by defeating his brother Ismail at the Battle of Ghazni.
He subsequently expanded his territory westward to occupy the Kandahar region, transforming it into a militarized city.
After consolidating his rule, Mahmud of Ghazni turned his focus towards Hindustan, launching seventeen invasions between 1000 A.D. and 1026 A.D.
Until the rise of the West, India was renowned for its prosperity, fabulous wealth, and moderate climate, making it a tempting target for invaders.
The descendants of the Mongols, who had settled in regions like Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, were within easy reach of North-Western India.
The political landscape of the region consisted of fragmented and warring kingdoms, making India vulnerable to external invasions.
Some historians argue that Mahmud of Ghazni was primarily motivated by economic gain rather than political control. His primary intention was to plunder the immense wealth of Indian temples.
Except for Punjab, which he used as a strategic base for further expeditions, he made no attempts to administer the territories he invaded.
Other scholars suggest that Mahmud also had religious motives. Despite being offered vast sums to spare them, he destroyed numerous Hindu temples.
He was considered an iconoclast who sought religious merit by demolishing temples, which, according to some beliefs, would ensure him a place in heaven.
Historian Romila Thapar presents a balanced perspective, suggesting that Mahmud needed funds for his extensive military campaigns. Since Indian temples were known to possess immense treasures, they became his primary targets.
She also notes that, as a Sunni Muslim, Mahmud waged wars against both Hindus and Shia Muslims, attempting to convert the latter to Sunni beliefs.
The first expedition in 1000 A.D. resulted in the capture of several frontier districts. Mahmud appointed his governors to administer these newly acquired territories.
In 1002 A.D., Mahmud invaded Sistan, overthrew the last Saffarid Amir, and ended the Saffarid dynasty.
After this conquest, he shifted his focus to Hindustan, particularly the fertile Punjab region, as his native region of Khorasan was arid and mountainous.
The abundance of fruits like mangoes, oranges, and bananas in Punjab contrasted with the pomegranates and watermelons of Khorasan, driving the Ghaznavid interest in India for economic gain through agriculture and trade.
Jaipal, the ruler of the Hindushahi Kingdom, had already faced Mahmud during the reign of Subuktagin. Upon ascending the throne, Mahmud attacked the Hindushahi Kingdom in 1001 A.D.
15,000 Hindu soldiers were killed, and Jaipal was defeated and captured along with 15 relatives.
Mahmud looted vast wealth and demanded 250,000 Dinars for Jaipal’s release.
Despite his release, Jaipal was unable to bear the humiliation and committed suicide by self-immolation.
During this period, Mahmud targeted the city of Bihar after its ruler failed to honor his promises. Though the Raja of Bihar resisted, he was eventually defeated and fled the battlefield.
Following the annexation of Bihar, the Raja was persuaded to return, but he was subsequently stabbed to death. Many Hindus were massacred, with only those who converted to Islam spared.
In 1006 A.D., Mahmud invaded Multan, ruled by Abul Fateh Daud, a heretic who deviated from orthodox Islam. Mahmud considered him as unworthy as the Rajputs.
During his advance, Anandapal, the ruler of Punjab, resisted but was defeated and fled to Kashmir.
After seven days of fierce fighting, Mahmud captured Multan and imposed a fine of 20,000 dirhams on its inhabitants as a penance.
He appointed Sukhpal (alias Nawasa Shah), the grandson of Jaipal, as the governor of Punjab and Multan.
Later, upon learning of Sukhpal's betrayal and reversion from Islam, Mahmud invaded again, defeated him, and took direct control of the region.
In 1008 A.D., Anandapal, the son of Jaipal, became the ruler of the Hindushahi Kingdom. Determined to resist Mahmud, he united several Hindu kings, including those from Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi, and Ajmer.
The armies faced each other on the battlefield of Peshawar in a fiercely contested battle.
The Khokhars, a local tribe, allied with the Hindu forces, killing around 5,000 Muslims.
Despite the setback, Mahmud maintained his resolve. However, the elephant carrying Anandapal became uncontrollable, leading to panic and disarray among the Hindu ranks.
With the Hindu forces in disarray, the Muslims pursued and slaughtered 20,000 Hindus. This decisive victory marked the end of one of the most organized efforts by medieval Hindu rulers to resist foreign invasions.
Nagarkot was renowned for its immense wealth stored in its temples. Mahmud led an invasion, destroying everything in his path like a swarm of locusts. Overcome with fear, the defenders surrendered without resistance. Upon returning to Ghazni, his people gathered to witness the vast treasures looted from India.
In 1014 A.D., Mahmud attacked Thanesar upon learning about its temple riches. Despite the Hindus’ attempt to negotiate a compromise, he refused. His army destroyed the city, massacred its inhabitants, and plundered the temples.
Mahmud attempted to invade Kashmir in 1015 A.D. and collected considerable spoils. However, he failed to subdue the ruler. After a second unsuccessful attempt, he abandoned his plans to conquer Kashmir.
In 1018 A.D., Mahmud invaded Mathura, marveling at its grand temples. Facing no resistance, he looted the city and seized unimaginable wealth.
In 1019 A.D., Mahmud attacked Kannauj, ruled by Rajpal Pratihar, who fled without fighting. The temples were plundered, many innocent civilians were killed, and Rajpal Pratihar eventually accepted Mahmud’s authority before the conqueror returned to Ghazni.
After Rajpal Pratihar accepted Mahmud’s supremacy, it angered other Rajput rulers. Gandda Chandel, the ruler of Kalinjar, with the support of the King of Gwalior and others, killed Rajpal.
To punish the conspirators, Mahmud attacked Kalinjar. Ultimately, Gandda Chandel submitted to Mahmud and paid a large tribute, satisfying the conqueror.
In 1023 A.D., Mahmud attacked Lahore and emerged victorious. The city was annexed to his growing empire.
The most infamous of Mahmud’s invasions was his sixteenth attack on the sacred Somnath Temple in Gujarat, Western India. Despite the long distance from Ghazni, the fear of his wrath ensured him an easy passage.
The temple, renowned for its treasures, was guarded by 1,000 priests, with numerous dancers and singers performing at its gates. The shrine housed a celebrated Linga, a sacred stone adorned with precious gems resembling stars.
Brave Hindu Rajputs resisted fiercely for three days. Ultimately, Mahmud’s forces overpowered them and entered the temple. He ordered the destruction of the sacred Linga and plundered the temple’s immense wealth.
It is said that he acquired treasures worth 20 million Dinars, eighty times the wealth gained from his first invasion.
On his return from Somnath, Mahmud’s army faced an ambush by the Jats in 1026 A.D.. To retaliate, he turned back and defeated them decisively. This marked his seventeenth and final invasion of India.
Over the next three decades, Mahmud of Ghazni conducted more than a dozen military campaigns into Hindu and Islamic kingdoms to the south. His empire expanded to the shores of the Indian Ocean at Southern Gujarat before his death. To manage the vast territories, Mahmud appointed local vassal kings to govern in his name, fostering better relations with non-Muslim populations. He also welcomed Hindu and Ismaili soldiers and officers into his army.
However, as the financial burden of continuous warfare grew, the Ghaznavid treasury faced strain. In response, Mahmud ordered his troops to target Hindu temples and seize large quantities of gold.
Mahmud of Ghazni was an avid lover of books and a patron of scholars. He established an extensive library at his residence in Ghazni, which was comparable to the grand library of the Abbasid Caliph’s court in Baghdad. Furthermore, he sponsored the construction of universities, palaces, and magnificent mosques, transforming Ghazni into the cultural jewel of Central Asia.
Throughout his lifetime, Mahmud fought against various religious groups he considered infidels, including Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Muslim sects like the Ismailis. He viewed the Ismailis as heretics, sharing this belief with his overlord, the Abbasid Caliph.
Despite his harsh actions against religious adversaries, Mahmud of Ghazni demonstrated tolerance towards non-Muslims who did not oppose him militarily. This policy of relative tolerance was later carried on by the subsequent Muslim empires in India, including the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 A.D.) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1857 A.D.).
In the last four years of his life, Mahmud faced mounting challenges from the influx of Oghuz Turkic tribes, the Buyid Dynasty, and revolts by the Seljuqs. Initially, he repelled the Seljuqs, forcing them to retreat to Khwarezm. However, led by Togrul and Cagri, the Seljuqs eventually captured Merv and Nishapur between 1028-1029 A.D.
On 30th April, 1030, Sultan Mahmud passed away, marking the end of his reign.
Mahmud of Ghazni is remembered as a courageous soldier, a strategic commander, and a man of immense physical and mental resilience. His leadership on the battlefield was unparalleled, and his patronage attracted great architects, poets, and artists to his court.
While Muslim historians praised him as a defender of the faith, Hindu accounts often portrayed him as a ruthless invader. Modern scholars, however, view him as a complex figure—a just ruler within his own framework of governance, a capable leader, and a promoter of arts and culture. His legacy remains a subject of diverse interpretations, making him one of the most significant rulers in world history.
Sultan Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghori marked the beginning of Muslim rule in India. Unlike previous invaders, he established a foundation for the Muslim empire by appointing trained successors who consolidated power after his assassination. From his reign until the Sepoy Mutiny, Delhi was often ruled by Muslim monarchs.
In 1009 A.D., the independent ruler of Ghur, Muhammad-bin-Suri, was defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni and served as a vassal. Following Mahmud's death in 1030 A.D., the situation changed. After a series of conflicts, Ala-ud-din Hussain of Ghur defeated the Ghazni king and appointed his brother Ghias-ud-din to rule. Later, Muhammad Ghori declared independence, establishing himself as a sovereign ruler.
Several factors motivated Muhammad Ghori to expand his territory in India:
After his initial conquests, Muhammad Ghori faced Prithviraj Chauhan, the ruler of Delhi and Ajmer. Despite the support of various Rajput rulers, excluding Jaichandra, Prithviraj led a coalition against him. The battle occurred near Tarain, 14 kilometers from Thaneswar. Prithviraj Chauhan emerged victorious, forcing Muhammad Ghori to retreat to Ghazni.
In 1192 A.D., Muhammad Ghori launched a second campaign with a massive army. Approximately 150 Rajput princes supported Prithviraj Chauhan. After a prolonged day of fierce fighting, the Rajputs faced defeat. Prithviraj was captured, demoralizing the Rajput forces. With no strong opposition, Muhammad Ghori seized territories including Samana, Kuhram, and Hansi. He appointed Qutub-ud-din Aibak to govern the Indian possessions, while a son of Prithviraj was placed in charge of Ajmer.
After the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, Jaichandra rejoiced, believing his insult had been avenged. However, in 1194 A.D., Muhammad Ghori launched an attack on Kanauj. During the Battle of Chandwara, Jaichandra was fatally struck by an arrow and fell from his elephant. According to S.R. Sharma, this marked Muhammad's control over the political and religious capitals of Hindustan, Kanauj and Banaras.
In 1197-98 A.D., Qutub-ud-din Aibak, acting on behalf of Muhammad Ghori, occupied Badawn and reoccupied Banaras. He extended his control over Kawnian, Mahoba, and Khajuraho.
Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad-bin-Bakhtiyar Khalji, a commander under Qutub-ud-din Aibak, launched a sudden attack on Bihar. Thousands of Buddhist and Hindu monks were slaughtered, and the region was looted and plundered.
Emboldened by his success in Bihar, Ikhtiyar-ud-din set his sights on Bengal. In 1204-05 A.D., he attacked Nadia, one of Bengal’s capitals. The king fled barefoot through a back door, leaving behind his wives, maids, attendants, and treasures, which fell into Ikhtiyar-ud-din's hands. He conquered Western Bengal, while Eastern Bengal remained untouched.
In 1205 A.D., Muhammad Ghori and Qutub-ud-din Aibak achieved a decisive victory against the Khokhars, who resided between the Jhelum and the Chenab rivers. The battle resulted in a large-scale massacre and extensive plundering.
Muhammad Ghori was undoubtedly a formidable warrior, proven by his vast conquests. While he lacked the grandeur of Mahmud of Ghazni, he excelled as a constructive statesman. Unlike Mahmud, Ghori’s primary aim was not merely plundering, but establishing a lasting empire in India.
Though he displayed cruelty at times, he was also recognized as a shrewd diplomat. His political strategy involved exploiting India's political disunity to create a Muslim empire. Despite his sudden death, he successfully trained a cadre of capable leaders to uphold his legacy.
Historians acknowledge that from Muhammad Ghori's time until the Indian Mutiny, there was always a Muslim monarch on the throne of Delhi.