Explore the architectural marvels of the Chalukya dynasty, including the rock-cut caves of Badami, structural temples of Pattadakal, and their lasting artistic impact.

Art & Architecture Under Chalukya

• Cultural and Architectural Flourishing

  The Chalukyan dominion experienced remarkable cultural growth due to:

  • Political stability
  • Material prosperity
  • Religious tolerance

  This period saw advancements in various fields, including art, architecture, literature, and administration. It marked the first major phase of religious architecture in South India, including both rock-cut and structural temples.

  Architectural experimentation flourished in the three main centers:

  • Aihole
  • Badami
  • Pattadakal

• Architectural Evolution

  The Chalukyas blended indigenous elements with northern and southern styles. Their most significant contribution was the evolution of two temple styles:

  • Southern Dravida-Vimana
  • Northern Rekha-Nagara Prasada

  These styles evolved through a series of experiments, beginning at Aihole, continuing at Badami, and culminating at Pattadakal.

  The political conflicts with the Pallavas of Kanchipuram contributed positively by encouraging architectural and sculptural diffusion.

• Temples at Aihole

  Aihole, the first capital of the Chalukyas, is situated on the bank of the Malaprabha River. It hosts numerous stone-built shrines, primarily Brahminical but also some Jain, constructed between 450-650 AD.

  The site consists of approximately seventy temples, including:

  • Thirty temples within a walled and bastioned enclosure.
  • Others located nearby due to space constraints.

• Mandapa-Type Temples

  The earliest temple forms in Aihole are the Mandapa-type temples, resembling cave temples. These structures feature a simple cella with an open verandah.

  Over time, these temples evolved into the mature Prasada and Vimana styles, incorporating:

  • Mukha-mandapa (front hall)
  • Closed Sabha-mandapa (assembly hall)
  • Antarala (vestibule)
  • Pradakshina-patha (circumambulatory path)

  Both types of Sikhara—pyramidal and curvilinear—are seen here.

• The Konti-Gudi Group of Temples

  This group comprises three temples with a primitive architectural style:

  • The first temple faces east, the second faces west, and the third is adjacent to the eastern-facing temple.

  First Temple (Facing East)

  • Oblong plan with a central entrance in a long open verandah.
  • Six pillars on the east; solid walls on the other three sides.
  • Eight pillars in the center on a platform.
  • The sanctum is attached to the rear western wall.

  Second Temple (Facing West)

  • Square plan with an open verandah.
  • Sanctum located at the rear wall.
  • A square platform-like structure above the Sabha-mandapa, a unique feature.

  Third Temple (Adjacent to the Eastern-Facing Temple)

  • Oblong plan, appearing to be the latest in the group.
  • Features a latticed wall formed by pillars.
  • The sanctum is still attached to the back wall.

• The Ladh-Khan Temple

  One of the oldest Hindu temples in Aihole, the Ladh-Khan Temple is dedicated to Shiva and was built in the 5th century by the Chalukyas. It is located to the south of the Durga Temple and was temporarily used as a residence by a man named Ladh Khan.

  Structural Features

  • A shrine (garbha griha) with a mandapa in front.
  • The mukha-mandapa (front hall) is supported by 12 carved pillars.
  • The sabha-mandapa leads to the maha-mandapa, where pillars form two concentric squares.
  • Walls are adorned with floral patterns, and the windows feature northern-style lattice work.
  • A second sanctum is located above the center of the hall, with outer walls featuring numerous carvings.

  Historical Significance

  Originally dedicated to Vishnu, the shrine now houses a Shiva Linga with a Nandi. It was built in the Panchayatana style, representing an early experiment in temple construction.

  Unique Architectural Features

  • Begins as a rectangular structure and transitions into a square structure.
  • Designed in a wooden construction style but executed in stone.
  • The maha-mandapa is open to the exterior with large windows between pillars.
  • The roof above the maha-mandapa features a turret, considered a precursor to later towered sikhara and vimanas.

Durga Temple

• Architectural Significance

  The Durga Temple is an example of the southern (Dravidian) architectural type, with a later northern-style superstructure imposed on it. This incongruity is evident in the square-shaped superstructure, which is awkwardly fitted over the apsidal cella.

  The temple stands on a high moulded upapitha (sub-base), apsidal in plan, and carries a peripheral row of columns on its edge. These columns surround the moulded adhishthana and walls of the apsidal vimana and its front mandapa, forming a covered circumambulatory with a sloping roof.

  The open mandapa extends forward on a base of smaller width. The peripheral pillars of the front mandapa and those at the forward end of the circumambulatory feature large statuary.

• Architectural Elements

  • The adhishthana inside is also apsidal, moulded with all the necessary components.
  • It supports the apsidal wall enclosing the inner apsidal wall of the cella (garbha-griha) and a closed maha-mandapa in front.
  • Two linear rows of four columns each divide the maha-mandapa into a central nave and lateral aisles.

• Roofing and Circumambulatory

  • The central nave has a higher flat roof, raised over a sort of clerestory in front of the cella entrance.
  • The two lateral aisles have sloping roofs at a lesser height than the central roof.
  • The aisles of the maha-mandapa continue on either side, forming a closed inner circumambulatory between the inner and outer walls of the cella.
  • The circumambulatory also has a sloping roof.
  • The adhishthana of the apse extends forward into a porch-like front mandapa of smaller width, supported by four pillars arranged in two rows.

• Sculptural Details and External Features

  • The reliefs on the adhishthana and outer walls are framed by pilasters and enclose niches adorned with shrine-fronts.
  • These shrine-fronts display various patterns of northern and southern vimanas, including:
  • Kuta
  • Sala
  • Panjara
  • Udgama
  • Each shrine-front contains bold sculptures.
  • The temple has four recesses—two each on the north and south sides and two more around the apse-end—fitted with perforated windows.
  • The original temple likely featured an apsidal griva and sikhara over the inner wall of the cella, similar to structures in Ter and Chejarla. It may have had a solid core or been supported by props inside.

• Dating and Inscriptions

  • The temple’s advanced architectural features, evolved shrine-fronts, and sculptural style suggest it was built in the eighth century.
  • An inscription of Chalukya Vikramaditya II (733-746 AD) was found on the ruined gopura at the southeastern part of the enclosing wall, supporting this dating.

• The Misleading Name

  The temple’s name, "Durga," is misleading, as it was not originally dedicated to the goddess Durga. Instead, the name originates from the fact that, until the early 19th century, the temple was part of a fortification (durga), likely built by the Marathas.

Huchimalli-Gudi Temple

• Architectural Significance

  The Huchimalli-Gudi Temple is an important structure in early Chalukyan architecture. It marks the first appearance of the antarala (vestibule), a significant development in temple design. The temple's rectangular plan includes:

  • Garbhagriha (sanctum)
  • Antarala (vestibule)
  • Pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path)
  • Mukhamandapa (front porch)
  • Sabhamandapa (assembly hall)

  The Sikhara (tower) was added at a later date.

• Architectural Highlights

  • The Kaksasanas (seating platforms) on both sides of the portico feature an elegant ghata pallava design, symbolizing the bowl of plenty and representing prosperity.
  • Built in the 7th century, this temple demonstrates an evolution in temple planning by incorporating an ardhamandapa (ante-chamber) annexed to the main shrine.
  • The introduction of the shukanasa (vestibule) for the first time marks a significant architectural development.

Meguti Temple

• Historical Significance

  The Meguti Jain Temple, built in 634 AD, stands atop a hillock and is the only dated monument from this period. The temple is located on a raised platform, accessed via a flight of steps leading to the Mukhamandapa (front porch). The spacious, pillared Mukhamandapa is followed by another flight of stairs leading to a second shrine on the roof, positioned directly above the main shrine. The rooftop offers a panoramic view of the surrounding landscape, dotted with nearly a hundred temples.

• Architectural Features

  • Though possibly never completed, the temple provides valuable insights into the early development of Dravidian-style architecture.
  • An inscription on the outer wall records its construction by Ravikeerthi, a scholar in the court of Emperor Pulakeshi II.
  • In the Meganagudi group of temples, several ancient structures are situated on Megutigudda, a small hillock southeast of the village.

• Two-Story Structure

  • A unique two-story structure on the hill contains a natural cavern inside.
  • The first floor consists of a pillared hall with three shrine cells at the rear wall, the central one serving as the main sanctum.
  • The second floor has a similar layout, featuring a verandah and a square shrine cell at the back.
  • This relatively simple structure is assigned to the 5th century.

• Jinalaya (Jain Temple) and Inscription

  • The Meguti, or Meganagudi, is a Jinalaya (Jain temple) built in the Dravidian style and enclosed by a stone wall.
  • It features a pillared hall in front, an antarala, and a sanctum with a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path).
  • One of its outer walls bears the famous Aihole inscription, dated 634 AD, which records the construction of the Jinendra temple by Ravikeerti, a commander and minister under Pulakeshi II.
  • The inscription also mentions poets Kalidasa and Bharavi and is composed in an ornate Sanskrit style by Ravikeerti himself.

• Jain Cave and Statues

  • To the southeast of Meguti, a small Jain cave contains a porch, a rear wall, and a sanctum that houses a five-foot-tall Bahubali statue.
  • Other Tirthankara figures are also engraved on the walls.

Temples at Badami

• Historical Background

  The city of Badami, historically known as Vatapi, served as the second capital of the Early Western Chalukyas from 540 to 757 AD. It is located at the foot of steep cliffs near a small lake. Badami and its neighboring town, Muktesvara, house some of the earliest examples of the Dravidian architectural order.

  The first known vimana temples of the Early Western Chalukyas—Upper Shivalaya, Lower Shivalaya, and Malegitti Shivalaya—are perched on the outer cliffs of the Badami hills. These temples were constructed during the reign of Mangalesa, son of Pulakesin I, who selected this site as his capital. The Badami temples are famous for their rock-cut architecture and display an impressive level of craftsmanship.

• North Fort

  Situated on the opposite side of the town, the North Fort features deep canyon-like crevices through which a winding path ascends. Along this path, two freestanding, multi-storeyed mandapas can be seen. These structures do not appear to be connected to any temple and may have been part of an early ceremonial complex.

• Lower Shivalaya

  Architectural Features

  • The Lower Shivalaya originally had outer walls and a mandapa (hall) extension to the east, but only the towered sanctuary remains today.
  • The sanctuary was originally surrounded by a passageway on three sides.
  • Broken roof slabs embedded in its walls and remnants of beams adorned with friezes of ganas suggest the former presence of a mandapa.

  Ornamentation

  • The temple doorway is framed with bands of lotus ornamentation.
  • Inside, an unusual elliptical-shaped pedestal is now empty.
  • The outer walls are adorned with flat pilasters but lack sculptural niches.

  Roof Structure

  • The roof transitions from an octagonal shape to a dome, crowned with a small amalaka finial.
  • The corners feature kuta roofs containing miniature nidhis.

• Upper Shivalaya

  Structural Layout

  • The temple consists of a rectangular structure housing a sanctuary with a passageway on three sides.
  • The passageway opens into a columned mandapa on the east, though its internal columns are missing.
  • The walls rest on a basement with a central recessed course featuring foliate ornamentation and narrative scenes.

  Sculptural Highlights

  • Southern Wall: Features scenes from the Ramayana, including the waking of Kumbhakarna and Rama’s battle against forest enemies.
  • Western Panels: Illustrate the birth and childhood of Lord Krishna, including the episode where Krishna sucks the life out of Putana.
  • Northern Wall: Lacks narrative carvings but has narrow pilastered projections supporting miniature eaves and kudus.

  Roof and Tower

  • The square tower over the sanctuary features pilastered walls.
  • The roof is topped with a large kuta but lacks a finial.
  • This is the earliest and best-preserved example of this type of Dravidian roof in Early Chalukya architecture.

• Malegitti Shivalaya

  Architectural Significance

  • The Malegitti Shivalaya is the earliest surviving example of Dravidian-style architecture from the Early Chalukya period.
  • It consists of a sanctuary without a passageway, opening into a triple-aisled mandapa.

  Sculptural Elements

  • The walls of both the sanctuary and mandapa feature curved courses and central recessed portions.
  • The panels are decorated with depictions of ganas, musicians, dancers, and warriors.

  External Projections

  • The mandapa walls have three projections on the north and south.
  • The central projections contain sculptures of Shiva (south) and Vishnu (north), each accompanied by two attendants.
  • Near the porch, the walls feature pilastered corner projections, each containing a swaying dvarapala (door guardian).

  Roof and Finishing

  • The sanctuary and mandapa walls are adorned with continuous kapota eaves resting on a frieze of ganas.
  • The tower above the sanctuary has an octagonal-to-dome roof, similar to the Upper Shivalaya, but without an amalaka finial.

  Interior Shrine

  • Inside, the sanctuary houses a linga on a pedestal.
  • This may have replaced an earlier sculpted deity.

Rock Cut Caves of Badami

• Introduction

  The Early Chalukyas selected the finely-grained and horizontally stratified sandstone cliffs of Badami (Bijapur District) for rock excavations. These caves facilitated the construction of large temple caves with intricate carvings and fine sculptures.

• Key Caves

  • Cave 3: The earliest and largest cave, dedicated to Vishnu, excavated in Saka 500 (A.D. 578) by Mangalesa.
  • Cave 2: The smallest cave, also dedicated to Vishnu.
  • Cave 1: A medium-sized cave dedicated to Shiva.
  • Jaina Cave Temple: Located at the top of the hill, built about a century later than the rest.

• Architectural Features

  • A rectangular pillared verandah (Mukha-mandapa).
  • A square pillared hall (Maha-mandapa).
  • A small shrine cell (Garbhagriha) at the rear.

  The facade is wide and high, with massive carved pillars. The brackets (Potika) below the beam support an overhanging ledge (Kapota). The ceilings have coffered designs with relief medallions, and inner pillars feature classic capital components like Kalasha (vase) and Kumbha (bulbous cushion).

Chalukyan Temples: Badami, Muktesvara, and Pattadakal

• Temples at Muktesvara

  Located on the outskirts of Badami, Muktesvara houses early Chalukyan temples featuring both Prasada-style (North Indian) and Dravida-style (South Indian) temples in a single walled enclosure.

  • Mahakutesvara Temple
  • Sangamesvara Temple

• Temples at Pattadakal

  Pattadakal, the third capital of the Early Chalukyas, marks the third stage of Chalukyan temple architecture. The site contains 10 temples, showcasing both Dravida and Rekhanagara (North Indian) styles.

• Architectural Styles

  • Dravida Vimana Style: Virupaksha, Mallikarjuna, and Sangameswara Temples.
  • Rekhanagara Prasada Style: Kadasiddeswara, Jambulinga, Galaganatha, Kasivisweswara, and Papanatha Temples.

  The Virupaksha Temple was built by Lokamahadevi, the queen of Vikramaditya II (733–745 AD). The temple walls and pillars are adorned with intricate sculptures and mythological panels.

• Sculptural Highlights

  • Deities: Mithuna couples, Dikpalas, Surya on the ceiling.
  • Saivite Sculptures: Durga, Nataraja, Lingodbhava, Ardhanarishvara, Gajasuramardana, Andhakasuramardana.
  • Vishnu Forms: Varaha, Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Garuda.
  • Epic Panels: Scenes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, Kiratarjuneeya, and Panchatantra.

• Sangameswara Temple

  Founded by King Vijayaditya (A.D. 720) as the Vijayeswara Temple, this temple remains incomplete despite multiple building phases.

• Architectural Features

  • Sanctum (Garbhagriha) housing a linga.
  • A vestibule (Antarala) with sub-shrines.
  • A Mandapa with massive pillars.
  • A circumambulatory path (Pradakshinapatha) lit by three windows on the north, west, and south.
  • A Nandi image placed on a small plinth.

  The temple is built on a high plinth with sculptures of Vishnu and Shiva. A frieze of dwarfs (Ganas) runs below the eaves, appearing as if they are carrying the superstructure.

• Mallikarjuna Temple

  Known as Sri Trailokeswara Maha Saila Prasada, this temple was built in A.D. 740 by Queen Trailokyamahadevi of Vikramaditya II to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas.

• Architectural Features

  • A Sanctum (Garbhagriha) with a Pradakshinapatha.
  • A Sabha Mandapa with entrance porches on three sides.
  • A Nandi Mandapa built separately.
  • A surrounding enclosure wall (Prakara), now partially intact.

• Sculptural Highlights

  • Epic and Puranic Scenes: Durga slaying Mahishasura, Samudra Manthana, Narasimha fighting Hiranyakashipu, exploits of Krishna.
  • Amorous couples (Mithunas) on pillars, larger and better preserved than in Virupaksha Temple.

• Key Architectural Differences

  • Missing Hara Elements: The top storey lacks Kuta, Sala, and other architectural elements, marking a transition in Dravida temple design.
  • Roof Style: Hemispherical Sikhara, unlike the square roof of Virupaksha Temple.
  • Nataraja Depiction: Carved on the Sukanasa (ornamental gable).

  The Nandi Mandapa, though in ruins, features beautifully carved elephants and other animals. The projecting balconies have sixteen-sided pillars with ornate scroll designs, while graceful female figures are carved in niches.

• Conclusion

  The temples of Badami, Muktesvara, and Pattadakal are outstanding examples of Chalukyan architecture. They showcase a blend of Dravidian and Nagara styles, detailed carvings, mythological representations, and evolving architectural techniques.

Virupaksha Temple

• Introduction

  The Virupaksha Temple, still in worship today, is known from epigraphs as ‘Shri Lokeswara-Maha-Sila-Prasada’. It was built by Lokamahadevi, the queen of Vikramaditya II (A.D. 733-745), around A.D. 740 to commemorate her husband’s victory over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. The temple closely resembles the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram in both plan and elevation, representing a fully developed and perfected stage of Dravidian architecture.

• Architectural Layout

  • The temple faces east and has a square sanctum (Garbhagriha) with a circumambulatory path (Pradakshinapatha).
  • A vestibule (Antarala) connects the sanctum to the main hall.
  • Two small shrines for Ganesa and Mahishamardini face each other in front of the Antarala.
  • A Sabha Mandapa (assembly hall) with entrance porches on the east, north, and south.
  • A separate Nandi Mandapa in front of the temple.
  • The entire complex is enclosed by high Prakara (compound) walls, which originally had 32 small shrines dedicated to Parivaradevatas (subsidiary deities). Only a few of these shrines remain today.
  • Ornate entrance gates (Pratolis) on both the east and west.

• Exterior Features

  • The temple is built on a high plinth with five fully evolved mouldings.
  • The outer walls of the sanctum are divided into:
    • A central projection
    • Two intermediate projections
    • Two corner projections
    • Four recesses in between
  • The Mandapa walls (near the porches) are divided into two projections and two recesses.
  • All projections of the sanctum walls contain niches housing images of Saiva and Vaishnava deities such as:
    • Bhairava
    • Narasimha
    • Hari-Hara
    • Lakulisa
  • Perforated windows with various designs fill the remaining recesses.

• Superstructure and Roof

  • The parapet consists of architectural elements such as:
    • Kutas (square-shaped elements)
    • Panjaras (miniature apsidal shrines)
    • Salas (oblong-shaped elements)
  • The sanctum has a Dravida Vimana in three storeys with a Sukanasa projection over the Antarala.
  • The superstructure repeats many elements of the parapet and walls beneath.
  • The Shikhara (temple tower) is square-shaped with a round finial (Kalasa) at the top.

• Interior Sculptural Highlights

  The entire interior of the temple is decorated with elegant carvings and sculptures. Important depictions include:

  • Ramayana: The abduction of Sita
  • Mahabharata: Bhishma lying on a bed of arrows
  • Bhagavata Purana: Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain
  • Kiratarjuniya: Arjuna receiving the Pasupatastra from Shiva

  The Sabha Mandapa pillars are adorned with sculptures of amorous couples (Mithunas), Rati, and Manmatha. Additionally, intricate flora, fauna, and geometric patterns decorate various parts of the temple.

• Other Artistic Features

  • Doorjambs (Dwara-shakhas): Delicately carved with divine motifs.
  • Pillars and Pilasters: Different types of capitals and detailed carvings.
  • Lintels: Decorated with animals, birds, and architectural motifs.
  • Ceilings: Feature depictions of divine beings.
  • Dvarapalas (Door Guardians): Majestically standing sculptures at entrances.

• Nandi Mandapa

  Located east of the temple, the Nandi Mandapa is a square-shaped pavilion, open on all four sides. It houses a large image of Nandi placed on a raised platform.

  • The flat roof is supported by four pillars and short walls.
  • The outer surfaces of the walls are adorned with:
    • Attendant figures
    • Kinnara-Mithunas (celestial couples)

• Inscriptions

  • Eastern Gateway Porch: Records the victory of Vikramaditya II over Kanchipuram.
  • Tributes to Architects: Mentions Anivaritachari Gunda (chief architect, awarded the title "Tribhuvanachari") and Sarvasiddhi Achari (architect of the southern portion of the temple).

• Conclusion

  The Virupaksha Temple stands as a masterpiece of Chalukyan architecture, showcasing an evolved Dravidian style. Its intricate carvings, mythological depictions, and monumental structure make it one of the most significant historical temples in India.

Papanatha Temple

The Papanatha Temple is dedicated to Mukteswara, as per inscriptions, and was completed around 740 A.D.. During its construction, there appears to have been a change in design, as evidenced by:

• Alterations in Circumambulatory Path: A narrow Pradakshinapatha whose floor slabs obscure the external moulding of the Garbhagriha walls.
• Structural Changes: Buttress-like projections of the northern and southern Garbhagriha walls extending into the Ardha-Mandapa, which is an unusual architectural feature.

• Architectural Layout:
  • The temple is oriented towards the east.
  • Its plan includes:
    • A Sanctum (Garbhagriha) with a circumambulatory path (Pradakshinapatha).
    • Devakoshtha pavilions in three of its walls.
    • An Ardha-Mandapa (half-hall).
    • A Sabha-Mandapa (assembly hall).
    • An Entrance Porch (Mukhamandapa) with seating arrangements (Kakshasana).
  • Unlike many other temples, it lacks a Nandi Mandapa. Instead, an ornate image of Nandi is placed in the eastern half of the Sabha-Mandapa.
• Exterior Features:
  • Built on a plinth with five mouldings, decorated with:
    • Animal motifs
    • Floral designs
    • Kudus (arched dormer-like designs)
  • Wall surfaces feature:
    • Devakoshthas (niches) housing Saiva and Vaishnava deities.
    • Scenes from the Ramayana.
    • Chaitya-arch motifs above the niches.
    • Perforated windows interspersed between the niches.
  • The three devakoshtha pavilions enshrine different forms of Shiva.
  • The temple features a well-developed Rekha-Nagara Shikhara (northern-style curvilinear tower).
  • The Chaitya-arch on the Sukanasa contains a finely carved image of Nataraja (Shiva as the cosmic dancer).
  • However, the Amalaka (ribbed stone disc) and Kalasa (pinnacle) are missing.
• Sculptural Highlights:
  • Exterior walls feature narrative panels depicting:
    • Episodes from the Kiratarjuniya (Arjuna receiving the Pasupatastra from Shiva).
    • Scenes from the Ramayana.
  • Notably, the names of main characters and sculptors are inscribed, including:
    • Baladeva
    • Devaraya
    • Changama
    • Revadi
    • Ovajja
• Entrance and Ceiling Features:
  • Entrance porch pillars feature:
    • Kinnara (celestial) couples.
    • Engaged columns adorned with Dvarapalas (door guardians).
  • The corners above the entablature contain lion and sardula carvings (sardula = mythical lion-like beast).
  • The ceiling panel inside the temple showcases:
    • Dancing Shiva with Parvati accompanied by musicians and flying figures.
    • Sabha-Mandapa central ceiling: Features Anantasayana Vishnu surrounded by:
      • Dikpalas (Guardians of directions).
      • Nagaraja (Serpent king).
      • Gajalakshmi (Goddess Lakshmi with elephants).
    • Rearing lion sculptures above the entablature.
    • Ardha-Mandapa central ceiling: Features Dancing Shiva with Parvati and musicians.
    • Western ceiling of Ardha-Mandapa: Depicts Nagaraja.
  • The doorframes of both Mandapas and the Sanctum are elaborately carved.
• Chalukyan Contribution to Temple Architecture:
  • The Chalukyas played a crucial role in the development of the Vesara style, later refined by the Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas.
  • Chalukyan structural temples are found in:
    • Aihole
    • Badami
    • Pattadakal
  • Chalukyan cave temples are found at:
    • Ajanta
    • Ellora
    • Nasik
  • Some of the finest Chalukyan paintings are located in:
    • Badami Cave Temples
    • Ajanta Caves
  • A famous painting in Ajanta Caves depicts the reception of a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II.

The Papanatha Temple stands as a remarkable blend of Nagara and Dravidian styles. Its intricate carvings, narrative panels, and unique architectural features make it an important part of Chalukyan heritage.

Chalukya Dynasty

• Conclusion

  Some sources suggest that the Chalukya kings had only limited income from land and taxes. However, this argument is untenable considering:

  • The grandeur and pomp that surrounded Chalukyan monarchs.
  • The presence of a large and powerful standing army at all times.
  • The ability to conduct expensive military expeditions against neighboring kingdoms.
  • The records of extensive and profitable trade within India and with foreign nations.

  The Chalukyas were pious, serious, and ambitious rulers who were willing to be ruthless when required. Their survival over a long period was due to their ability to balance military might with strategic governance. Notably, no Chalukya king has ever been accused of moral corruption.

• Military and Strategic Strength

  • The Chalukyas recognized and fortified natural boundaries for defense.
  • They established a circle of feudatories for collective defense while maintaining their supreme status within the hierarchy.
  • They were the quintessential "Mandala Kings", constantly patrolling their kingdom’s borders while actively engaging in the welfare of the people.

  Despite their strength, the Chalukyas ultimately declined due to prolonged rivalry with the Pallavas and later the Cholas. A constant state of warfare is unsustainable, and though they managed to remain militarily prepared for an extended period, they eventually succumbed to military and financial exhaustion.

• The End of the Chalukyan Era

  The Chalukya rule was the golden age of the Deccan, marking the last of the great empires of the medieval Indian subcontinent. This was particularly remarkable considering that during the same period, North India was descending into anarchy.

  Unlike other dynasties that were defeated by external forces, the Chalukyas imploded from within due to administrative fatigue and difficulties in governing a vast empire. Their downfall paved the way for the Islamic invasions into the Gujarat region.

• Summary

  • The Western Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan for about two centuries before the Rashtrakutas rose to power.
  • Pulakesin I was the real founder of the Chalukya dynasty and established Vatapi (Badami) as its capital.

• Key Rulers and Their Achievements

  • Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.): Defeated the Kadambas of Banavasi, Gangas of Mysore, and Harshavardhana. He initially defeated the Pallavas but later suffered a humiliating loss to Narasimhavarman I. Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited India during his reign.
  • Vikramaditya: Regained Chalukya strength after Pulakesin II and plundered the Pallava capital Kanchi, avenging his father’s defeat.
  • Kirtivarman II: The last ruler of the Chalukya dynasty, defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

• Administration and Military

  • The Chalukya administration was highly centralized, unlike the decentralized systems of the Pallavas and Cholas.
  • Village autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas.
  • They had a significant maritime force; Pulakesin II maintained a navy of 100 ships.
  • They had a small but effective standing army.

• Religion and Culture

  • The Badami Chalukyas were primarily Brahmanical Hindus but respected other religions.
  • They emphasized Vedic rites and rituals; Pulakesin I performed the prestigious Asvamedha sacrifice.
  • Numerous temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, and other deities were built during this period.
  • Hiuen Tsang noted the decline of Buddhism in the western Deccan.
  • Jainism flourished, and Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II who composed the Aihole inscription, was a Jain.

• Art and Architecture

  • The Chalukyas were great patrons of art.
  • They developed the Vesara style of temple architecture, which was perfected under the Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas.
  • Famous structural temples built by the Chalukyas exist at:
    • Aihole
    • Badami
    • Pattadakal

• Decline of the Chalukyas

  Like other powerful dynasties in Indian history, the Chalukyas of Badami declined due to multiple factors:

  • Continuous wars with the Pallavas and Cholas weakened them.
  • The financial and military strain of constant warfare led to their exhaustion.
  • Ultimately, they lost political control to the Rashtrakutas.

  Despite their decline, the Chalukyas left behind an enduring legacy of political power, military strength, and architectural brilliance, shaping the future of South Indian history.