Learn about the military conquests, naval dominance, and administrative policies of the Chola Empire under Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola.

The Rise of the Chola Empire

The Chola Empire arose in the ninth century, marking a significant shift in the political landscape of South India. They developed a powerful navy, enabling them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Their influence even extended to Southeast Asia.

Early Cholas
The Cholas are mentioned as early as the II and XIII Rock Edicts of Ashoka, along with the Pandyas and Cheras. These inscriptions indicate that the Cholas were a friendly power beyond Mauryan suzerainty. The Sangam literature further documents their chiefdoms. The greatest early Chola king was Karikala Chola, credited with founding the city of Puhar at the mouth of the Cauvery River. He also constructed embankments and improved irrigation. However, the post-Sangam history of the early Cholas remains unclear, as does their connection to the Cholas of the early medieval period.

Imperial Cholas
The Imperial Chola dynasty of Tanjore was founded by Vijayalaya Chola (850–871 CE). He established his rule around Uraiyur, captured Tanjore from the Muttaraiyar chieftains (who were allied with the Pandyas), and expanded his control along the lower Kaveri. Although he accepted Pallava overlordship, he consolidated his power, laying the foundation for Chola resurgence. Vijayalaya is also credited with building the Nishumbhasudini Temple.

Aditya I (871–907 CE) succeeded Vijayalaya and achieved significant military victories. He defeated the last Pallava ruler, Aparajita, in 893 CE, gaining control over Tondamandalam. He further expanded Chola territory by conquering Kongudesa (modern Coimbatore and Salem) and Talakad, the capital of the Western Gangas. Aditya I strengthened ties with the Pallavas through marriage alliances.

Parantaka I (907–953 CE) was the first major ruler of the dynasty, often considered the true founder of the Chola Empire. He secured his northern frontier by defeating the Pandyas and capturing Madurai, earning the title ‘Maduraikonda’ (Conqueror of Madurai). The defeated Pandyan king, Rajasimha, fled to Sri Lanka. Parantaka I further strengthened Chola dominance by defeating a combined force of Pandyas and the king of Sri Lanka at the Battle of Vellur, annexing Pandyan territories. However, his later years saw a setback when the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated him at the Battle of Takkolam (949 CE), leading to the loss of northern Chola territories.

Parantaka I was also a great temple builder. He covered the Vimana of the Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The Uttarameruru inscriptions, detailing Chola village administration, belong to his reign. Following his death in 953 CE, the Chola dynasty witnessed three decades of weak rulers and political decline.

Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) revived Chola power and laid the foundation of a mighty empire. Born as Arumolivarman, he took the title Rajaraja I upon ascending the throne. Under his rule, the Chola Empire reached its zenith, and he established an efficient administrative system. His military campaigns, as recorded in his Tanjore inscriptions, significantly expanded Chola territory.

Expansion and Dominance

Over 400 years, the Cholas extended their power over a vast region, covering modern Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka, and Andhra. Emerging from Uraiyur near the Kaveri River in the mid-9th century, they soon controlled the entire Tamil-speaking region.

The Five Major Regions of Tamil Country

• Pandimandalam – The Pandya Realm with Madurai as its core.
• Cholamandalam – The heartland of the Chola Empire.
• Tondaimandalam – The sphere of authority of the Pallavas, centering around Kanchipuram.
• Naduvilnadu – Literally "The Land in the Center" between Cholamandalam and Tondaimandalam.
• Kongumandalam – Areas around Dharmapuri and Coimbatore districts.

The Great Conquests

Between the late 10th and 11th centuries, the Chola Empire extended to:

• Andhra region and Mysore.
• The northern-central part of Sri Lanka.
• Other islands in the Indian Ocean, including Lakshadweep and the Maldives.
• Under Rajendra Chola (1012–1044), its power extended to the Malay Peninsula and the Eastern Archipelago.

His victories earned him the title Gangaikondan or "The Conqueror of the River Ganga".

The Founder and Expansion

The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya. Initially a feudatory of the Pallavas, he captured Tanjore in 850 AD. By the ninth century, the Cholas had defeated the Pallavas and weakened the Pandyas, securing complete control over southern Tamil Nadu.

The Greatest Chola Rulers

The most powerful rulers of the Chola dynasty were:

• Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014) – Destroyed the Chera navy, conquered Madurai, and annexed Sri Lanka.
• Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044) – Extended the empire beyond India, ensuring domination in Southeast Asian trade.

One of Rajaraja’s major naval victories was the conquest of the Maldives. He also annexed the Ganga kingdom's northwestern parts and overran Vengi.

Rajendra Chola’s March to the Ganga

In 1022 AD, Rajendra Chola I led an expedition across Kalinga to Bengal. His armies:

• Crossed the river Ganga.
• Defeated two local kings.
• Followed the same route as Samudragupta.

To commemorate this victory, he assumed the title Gangaikondachola ("The Chola who conquered the Ganga") and established a new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram.

Legacy and Cultural Contributions

The Chola rulers were great patrons of art and architecture. Their most famous contributions include:

• The magnificent Brihadishwara Temple at Tanjore, completed in 1010 AD.
• The tradition of recording inscriptions on temple walls, providing a rich historical account of their reign.

The Chola Empire’s influence lasted for centuries, shaping the culture and history of South India and beyond.

Chola Conquests Beyond India

The Chola emperors were eager to conquer economically important trade centers outside the Indian subcontinent. One notable example is Rajendra I, who organized a naval expedition against the Sri Vijaya Empire during his reign.

Naval Expeditions and Trade

The Sri Vijaya Empire, revived in the 10th century, extended over the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and the neighboring islands. It controlled the overseas trade route to China. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty were Buddhists and initially had cordial relations with the Cholas. The Sailendra ruler even built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam, for which Rajendra I endowed a village for its upkeep.

Conflict and Expansion

The break between the Cholas and the Sailendras was due to the Cholas' eagerness to remove obstacles to Indian traders and expand trade with China. This led to the conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and other places in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the region, and for some time, the Bay of Bengal was referred to as a ‘Chola Lake’.

Diplomatic and Trade Relations with China

The Cholas sent multiple embassies to China, which served both diplomatic and commercial purposes:

• Embassies were sent in 1016 and 1033.
• A Chola embassy of 70 merchants reached China in 1077, receiving 81,800 strings of copper-cash (equivalent to over four lakh rupees).
• The Chinese referred to all trade goods as ‘tribute’, including glassware, camphor, brocades, rhinoceros horns, and ivory.

The Battle of Takkolam (948–949)

The Battle of Takkolam was a decisive military confrontation between Chola crown prince Rajaditya, eldest son of King Parantaka I (907–955), and the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III (939–967). Fought in southern India, it resulted in Rajaditya’s death and the defeat of the Chola garrison.

This battle marked the climax of the Chola-Rashtrakuta struggle for dominance over South India. The event was documented in multiple historical records. The Chola perspective is recorded in the Larger Leiden Grant (1006 AD) of Rajaraja I and the Tiruvalangadu Plates (1018 AD) of Rajendra Chola. The Rashtrakuta version appears in the Atakur inscription issued by Krishna III and Prince Butuga II, as well as the Shravana Belgola record of Ganga King Marasimha (963–975 AD).

Anticipating a battle with the Rashtrakutas, Parantaka I deployed his son Rajaditya in Tirumunaippati Nadu in the 930s (or possibly as early as 923 AD). Rajaditya arrived with a large military force, including war elephants and cavalry, and was later joined by his mother and half-brother Arinjaya, who was possibly from the Chera Perumal family.

The Rashtrakuta army at Takkolam was composed of feudal militias and royal soldiers from the Western Gangas, Banas, and Vaidumbas. The Chola forces, led by Rajaditya, had strong backing from the Chera chiefdoms. According to the Atakur inscription, Rajaditya, seated atop his war elephant, was struck by an arrow from Prince Butuga. He died instantly, causing the Chola army to collapse in disarray.

The Chola defeat had major consequences. The Rashtrakutas seized Chola territories in the north and east, advancing as far as Rameswaram. According to the Karhad copper plates (959 AD), Krishna III uprooted the Cholas, redistributed their lands, and extracted tribute from the Chera and Pandya kings. He earned the title ‘Tanjaiyunkonda’ (Conqueror of Tanjore) and briefly occupied the Chola capital. The Karhad plates further state that Krishna III defeated the Pandyas and the Keralas, forced the king of Ceylon to pay tribute, and planted the creeper of his fame at Rameswaram.

The defeat at Takkolam reversed the political gains made by Parantaka Chola, leading to a period of dynastic struggles within the Chola kingdom. The ruling house fell into political turmoil, facing continued threats from the Rashtrakutas. The battle reshaped South Indian politics, cementing Rashtrakuta supremacy while pushing the Cholas into decline.

The Battle of Koppam (1054 CE)

The Battle of Koppam was a fierce military confrontation between the Chola Empire and the Western Chalukyas, fought at Koppam, which many historians identify as modern-day Koppal in Karnataka. The Cholas, under King Rajadhiraja Chola I and his brother Rajendra Chola II, sought to expand their dominance over the Deccan, while Someshvara I, the Chalukya king, stood as their formidable opponent.

Since ascending the throne, Rajadhiraja Chola I had been determined to subjugate the Chalukyas, who controlled large portions of northern Karnataka and southern Maharashtra. His first attempt to invade Chalukya territory in 1047–48 ended in failure, but he remained resolute. In 1052, he launched a second expedition, leading a vast army northward, plundering the prosperous province of Rattamandalam. His brother and heir-apparent, Rajendra Chola II, followed with additional forces.

Someshvara I, unwilling to allow Chola expansion, gathered his army and marched to confront the invaders at Koppam. The battle was intense, with both sides suffering heavy losses. The Cholas initially gained the upper hand, their disciplined forces overpowering the Chalukyan ranks. However, at the height of the battle, Rajadhiraja Chola I, leading his army from the front, was struck by an arrow from Chalukyan archers. Mortally wounded, he fell in battle, causing momentary chaos within the Chola ranks.

As panic spread through the Chola forces, Rajendra Chola II swiftly took command. He rallied his soldiers and launched a ferocious counterattack, crushing the Chalukyan army. Someshvara I, unable to withstand the renewed Chola assault, was forced to flee the battlefield. The Cholas emerged victorious, capturing vast war spoils, including elephants, horses, camels, and even the queens of Someshvara I. In a powerful display of triumph, Rajendra Chola II crowned himself on the battlefield and later erected a victory pillar at Kolhapur before returning home.

Despite the tragic loss of Rajadhiraja Chola I, the Cholas did not suffer any territorial losses. Under the leadership of Rajendra Chola II, they maintained their dominance and continued to assert their power over the Chalukyas. The Battle of Koppam demonstrated the resilience of the Chola dynasty and their ability to recover from setbacks, ensuring their legacy as one of South India's greatest empires.

Conflict with the Chalukyas

The Cholas were in constant conflict with the later Chalukyas, who had succeeded the Rashtrakutas. Their capital was at Kalyani, and they clashed with the Cholas over:

• The overlordship of Vengi (Rayalaseema).
• The Tungabhadra doab.
• The Ganga-ruled region in northwest Karnataka.

Neither side was able to gain a decisive victory, and the conflicts exhausted both kingdoms.

Warfare and Administration

The wars became increasingly harsh during this time. The Cholas:

• Sacked and plundered Chalukyan cities, including Kalyani.
• Massacred the local population, including Brahmans and children.
• Destroyed Anuradhapura (ancient capital of Sri Lanka) and treated the Sri Lankan king and queen harshly.

However, once they conquered a region, the Cholas established a strong administrative system. One of their remarkable contributions was the promotion of local self-government in villages, which strengthened their political power.

Chola Administrative System

The Chola administration was structured into:

• Nadu – The basic unit of administration, consisting of villages with close kinship ties.
• Valanadu – A grouping of nadus.
• Mandalam – The empire was divided into four provinces, sometimes governed by royal princes.

The Cholas also built a network of royal roads, facilitating both trade and military movement.

Trade and Economic Policies

The Cholas aggressively promoted trade, with large trade guilds conducting commerce with Java and Sumatra. Historian R. Chakravarti argued that:

• The early Cholas focused on internal revenue.
• The imperial Cholas were drawn toward coastal expansion due to economic opportunities.

Revenue and Taxation

The main source of income for the state was land revenue, collected through a structured taxation system. Land was classified based on cropping patterns:

• Oru-puvilaiyum nilam – One-crop lands.
• Irupuvilaiyum nilam – Two-crop lands.
• Nir nilam – Wetlands.
• Punjey – Dry or wastelands.
• Nanjey – Improved lands.

There were two tiers of revenue extraction:

• Local taxation – Levied at the village and nadu levels.
• Supra-local taxation – Controlled by the central administration.

Various taxes included:

• Kutimai – Tax on cultivators.
• Vetti/Vettinai – Labor dues, particularly for irrigation.
• Natacci/Uracci – Taxes on residential spaces and commons.

There were also trading and artisanal dues, such as:

• Cunkam – Toll tax.
• Tattar Pattam – Tax on goldsmiths.
• Ennai Irai/Urai Nali – Tax on oil.
• Kurai Kacu – Tax on cloth.
• Verrilai – Tax on betel leaves.
• Vannar Parai – Tax on washermen.
• Paci Pattam – Tax on fishing.

Most of these taxes were paid in kind rather than in cash. The Chola Empire was not only a military power but also an economic powerhouse. Their expansionist policies were driven by trade ambitions, and their administrative system allowed them to sustain a vast empire for centuries.

The Decline of the Chola Empire

The Chola Empire continued to flourish during the twelfth century, but it began to decline in the early thirteenth century. Meanwhile, the later Chalukyan empire in the Maharashtra region also came to an end. The Cholas were soon replaced by new emerging powers:

• The Pandyas and Hoysalas in the south
• The Yadavas and Kakatiyas in the north

All these states patronized art and architecture, yet they weakened themselves through constant warfare. They frequently sacked towns and temples, which ultimately led to their downfall. By the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Sultans of Delhi had destroyed these kingdoms.

The Struggles of Rajaraja Chola III and Rajendra Chola III

The later Chola rulers, Rajaraja Chola III and his successor Rajendra Chola III, were weak rulers. They struggled to maintain control, facing threats from both within and outside their kingdom.

• Kopperunchinga I, the Kadava chieftain, even held Rajaraja Chola III hostage for a time.
• The Hoysalas emerged as dominant in the Kannada country, replacing the declining Chalukyas.
• The Hoysalas had to face constant conflicts with Seunas and Kalachuris, who occupied the Chalukyan capital.

Realizing the need for alliances, the Hoysalas maintained friendly relations with the Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III. This alliance continued into the time of Rajaraja Chola III, who was Kulothunga’s son and successor.

The Role of the Hoysalas in Tamil Politics

The Hoysalas played a divisive role in Tamil politics. They cleverly took advantage of the lack of unity among Tamil kingdoms. At times, they supported the Cholas, while at other times, they sided with the Pandyas. Their shifting alliances prevented both the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential.

• During Rajaraja III’s reign, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas and defeated Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas.
• Rajendra Chola III was a more capable ruler than his predecessor and attempted to revive Chola power.
• He led successful expeditions to the north, with his inscriptions found as far as Cuddappah.

However, his success was short-lived. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, later sided with the Pandyas and pushed back the Cholas.

The Rise of the Pandyas

By the late 13th century, the Pandyas emerged as the most powerful kingdom in the region.

• They controlled vast territories, including Sri Lanka, the Chera country, and parts of Telugu country.
• Under Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II and his successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan, they inflicted heavy defeats on their rivals.

In a decisive battle at Kannanur Kuppam, the Pandyas defeated both the Cholas and the Hoysalas. By 1279, the last Chola ruler, Rajendra III, was defeated, marking the end of the Chola empire.

The End of the Chola Dynasty

After 1279, the Chola empire ceased to exist. The Pandyas had not only removed the Cholas but had also driven out the Hoysalas from Malanadu (Kannada country).

• Although the Chola dynasty in India was extinguished, it survived elsewhere.
• According to Cebuano oral legends, a rebel branch of the Chola dynasty continued to exist in the Philippines.
• A local kingdom known as the Rajahnate of Cebu was founded by Rajamuda Sri Lumay, who was of mixed Tamil and Malay heritage.

Historiography of the Cholas

The study of Chola history has evolved over time. Historian Rakesh Mahalakshmi notes that early studies focused on the grandeur of the Chola empire, comparing it to the Byzantine Empire.

• The Cholas had democratic village assemblies with elected representation.
• Scholars analyzed landholding patterns in Brahmana and non-Brahmana villages to understand economic structures.
• Some studies emphasized the ritual sovereignty of the Cholas, where religious institutions played a key role.
• Others argued that the Chola state was a centralized entity with strong administrative institutions.

More recent research has questioned the idea of Chola colonization in Southeast Asia, suggesting that maritime trade networks played a bigger role in their expansion. Scholars also highlight the rise of regional powers like the Hoysalas, Kakatiyas, and Pandyas as key factors in the decline of the Cholas.

The Cholas may have disappeared as a political force in India, but their legacy continues to shape South Indian history and culture.

Quick Reading of Chola Empire

The Rise of the Chola Dynasty

The Chola dynasty, one of South India's most powerful Tamil ruling families, emerged from the fertile Kaveri River valley, with Uraiyur as their earliest capital. Their ascent began in the 9th century CE when Vijayalaya Chola captured Tanjavur from the Muttarayas, laying the foundation for a mighty empire. Over time, they expanded their rule over the Pallava and Pandyan territories, strengthening their governance through a structured administrative system. They redefined territorial units, converting the Nadu into Valanadu, integrating Zamindars, and refining land revenue collection to sustain their kingdom.

To legitimize their rule, the Cholas traced their lineage to the Suryavamsha, as recorded in the Tiruvalangadu and Leiden Copper Plates. Their Kshatriya status was reinforced through Sanskritic rituals, emphasizing their divine right to rule. The Chola empire reached its zenith under Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) and his son, Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE), who extended their dominion across Sri Lanka, the Deccan, the Ganges River, and even the Malay Peninsula.

Chola Administration, Society, and Military Prowess

Rajaraja I, a visionary ruler, constructed the magnificent Brihadishvara Temple at Tanjore, a testament to Chola architectural brilliance. His son, Rajendra Chola I, led the famous Ganges expedition, symbolizing Chola supremacy in the Indian subcontinent. The Chola era witnessed remarkable advancements in Tamil literature, temple architecture, and religious expansion, particularly in Shaivism and Vaishnavism.

The Cholas promoted village self-governance, irrigation systems, and resource redistribution, granting land, gold, and cattle to Brahmanas, warriors, and agriculturists to sustain their empire. Their kings bore Sanskritic and Tamil titles, reinforcing both their military might and cultural identity. The Chola charters, inscribed in Sanskrit and Tamil, documented their grants, achievements, and legitimacy, serving as invaluable historical records.

The Chola copper plate inscriptions shed light on their governance, detailing the roles of key entities like the Nattar, who represented the nadu (locality) and managed landholding and governance. The Brahmadeyakkilavars were Brahmana beneficiaries of brahmadeya land grants, while the Nagarattars formed the merchant class, residing in nagaram settlements.

According to historian Y. Subbarayalu, the nadu consisted of urs (peasant villages), forming a structured administrative unit. N. Karashima further identified village components, including landholders (kaniyudaiyar), tenant cultivators, artisans, and agricultural laborers. The vellalas were the primary cultivators, and landholding was a prerequisite for ur membership, with titles like Udaiyan, Kilan, Velan, and Peraraiyan denoting landholders. Scholars debate whether the nadu was a state-created or naturally evolved unit, but it undoubtedly played a vital role in tax collection, irrigation, and temple land transactions.

The Chola revenue system was highly sophisticated, maintaining records such as the Variyilarkanakku, with officials like the Nadu-vagai-ceyvar ensuring efficient financial management. Brahmadeya lands were granted to Brahmanas, forming self-governing Sabhas, while Nagaram settlements flourished with growing craft production and trade. The administrative hierarchy included Perundanan for higher officials and Senapatis for military commanders. Justice was upheld by Nyayattar (judges) and Dharmasana Bhattas, while taxation involved levies like Kadamai (land tax) and Vetti (labor tax).

The Chola military was formidable, comprising cavalrymen (Kudiraiccevagar) and archers (Villigal), with their navy playing a crucial role in expanding into Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. However, their dominance waned over time. Rajadhiraja I fell in the Battle of Koppam (1054 CE), and by 1279, the Pandyas conquered the last Chola territories, marking the end of a glorious dynasty.