Chola Society, Economy & Temple Architecture
Introduction: The Chola Dynasty - A Tamil Thalassocratic Empire
The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire in southern India and one of the world's longest-ruling dynasties. Vijayalaya established it in the 9th century. By the 10th century, the Chola rulers introduced social reforms. They followed Hinduism and continued the Pallava tradition by enforcing Varnasiramadharma.
Society and Economy of Cholas - Features: Caste System, Trade, and Temple Economy
The caste system was rigid. Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges. Inscriptions mention two major castes - Valangai (Right-hand caste) and Idangai (Left-hand caste). Despite caste divisions, people cooperated in social and religious activities.
Women's status remained low, and 'Sati' was common among royal families. The Devadasi system (temple dancers) also emerged.
Both Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished, and several temples were built under Chola patronage. These temples became economic hubs, and mathas (monastic institutions) gained influence. Agriculture prospered due to forest reclamation and irrigation systems. Kanchi became a center for silk weaving, and metalwork thrived due to high demand for temple idols and utensils.
Trade flourished with the construction of trunk roads (Peruvazhis) and the establishment of merchant guilds. The Cholas issued gold, silver, and copper coins and maintained commercial ties with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia. Arabian horses were imported to strengthen the cavalry.
Society and Culture: Temples, Art, Religion, and Literature
Temples were the center of social and religious life, serving as schools and safe havens during conflicts. The Chola society was divided into Brahmins and Non-Brahmins. The Cholas were ardent followers of Lord Shiva, and religious ties with the Trimula deity at Sri Venkateshwara temple were significant.
Art, religion, and literature flourished. Many Shiva temples were constructed along the Kaveri river. The Thanjavur Brihadeswara Temple, the largest and tallest of its time, still retains its natural color paintings. Several Chola-era temples, including Brihadisvara, Gangaikondacholisvaram, and Airavatesvara, are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Chola literature thrived. The Nalayira Divya Prabandham, a collection of 4000 Tamil verses, remains a cherished literary work.
Chola Society: Social Structure and Caste Divisions
Unlike the conventional four-fold varna system, Chola society was structured differently. Brahmins held religious and economic power and were exempt from taxation. Chola emperors claimed Kshatriya status and linked themselves to solar and lunar dynasties.
Trading communities identified as Vaishyas and used titles like Kamati, Vanijiya, and Chettiar. Below them, Sat Sudras (higher Sudras) played key roles in society. Kaikkolas were weavers who collected taxes for temples, and Saliyas produced royal garments. The dominant peasantry, Vellalas, were also part of this group.
Economy under Cholas: Self-Sufficiency and Village Autonomy
The Chola economy was self-sufficient. Villages had autonomy, preventing interference from feudal lords. People produced their own food, clothes, and goods. Initially, there was no surplus, but with the rise of towns and foreign trade, villages started producing excess goods for sale.
Trade and Commerce: Merchant Guilds and International Trade
The Cholas fostered trade across South India, Sri Lanka, South-East Asia, and China. They organized trade guilds such as Manigramam, Ayyavolu-500, Nanadesi, and Vira Valanjiyar. Major port cities included Mahabalipuram and Kaveripattanam.
Commerce relied on the barter system, with paddy as a common medium of exchange. Gold coins like Pon, Kasu, and Kalanju were used for large transactions.
Chola Religion: Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Religious Tolerance
Between the 6th and 9th centuries AD, Shaivite and Vaishnavite devotional movements became dominant, leading to the decline of Buddhism in Tamil regions. However, Jainism survived.
The Chola rulers, especially Raja Raja I, were ardent Shaivites. He took the title Shivapada Shekhara and built the Brihadeswarar Temple in Tanjore. The Suddashaiva order emerged with support from the Vellala community. The Shaivaite sects Kapalikas and Kalamukhas also influenced society.
Despite opposition from Chola rulers like Kulottunga I, the Vaishnavite saint Ramanuja successfully expanded the Vaishnavite cult.
Conclusion: The Chola Era - Tamil Nadu's Golden Age
The Chola era is often called Tamil Nadu's golden age due to its economic, social, and cultural advancements. The Cholas implemented land surveys and taxation policies as early as the 9th century, ensuring long-term economic growth.
Chola Architecture, Art, and Literature: A Golden Era of South Indian Culture
Chola Architecture: Evolution and Innovation in Temple Construction
Chola architecture was an evolution of Pallava architecture, enriched with refinements. The Cholas embraced the use of stone instead of bricks, ensuring durability. Temples flourished under Aditya and Parantaka, characterized by three niches on shrine walls and two on the ardhamandapa. The concept of royal patronage thrived, with tax-free land grants known as Devadana supporting temples.
Chola temples were enclosed by high boundary walls with a towering gopuram marking the entrance. Above the garbhagriha stood the vimana, a pyramidal structure with an octagonal shikhara at its peak. The layout often followed the Panchayatan style, featuring a main temple with four subsidiary shrines. The antarala connected the assembly hall to the sanctum, while the mandapa, a pillared hall, showcased exquisite carvings. Unique to Chola temples was the presence of a water tank within the premises.
Prominent Chola Temples: Architectural Marvels and Cultural Hubs
The Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram is a blend of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, where Lord Shiva is worshipped as the cosmic dancer, performing Ananda Tandava. The temple was further beautified by Parantaka I, who added a golden roof to the vimana.
The Nageswaraswamy Temple at Kumbakonam is an architectural marvel, built by Aditya Chola. Its precise alignment allows sunlight to illuminate the sanctum exclusively during the Tamil month of Chithirai (April/May).
The Brihadeeswara Temple in Tanjore, commissioned by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010 AD, is one of the largest Dravidian-style temples. Built entirely of granite, it stands as a testament to Chola engineering brilliance. The walls narrate tales from the Puranas through frescoes and sculptures. Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it remains a crowning achievement of Chola architecture.
Chola Art: Sculpture, Painting, Music, Dance, and Coinage
Chola art thrived through sculpture, painting, music, and dance. Temples were adorned with dynamic deity sculptures, their expressive features carved with precision. The lost-wax technique was perfected, producing stunning bronze idols, the most famous being the Nataraja, symbolizing Shiva’s cosmic dance. The depiction of Shiva’s earrings reflected the dual nature of Ardhanarishwara.
Paintings flourished, especially in Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, where murals narrated epic stories. A notable painting captures Rajaraja Chola I receiving wisdom from his guru, Karuvur Devar.
Music and dance were integral to Chola culture. Rajaraja Chola I revived Tevaram hymns, ensuring their recitation in temples by dedicated singers like the Oduvars. Nataraja as Adal Vallan became the embodiment of Tamil dance traditions.
Chola coinage was sophisticated, issued in gold, silver, and copper. The coins of Uttama Chola featured a tiger facing two fishes, while Raja Raja I depicted a standing king and seated goddess. Rajendra I inscribed his name as ‘Sri Rajendra’ or ‘Gangaikonda Chola’, commemorating his victories.
Chola Literature: Temples, Mathas, and Notable Literary Works
Chola rule nurtured literature, with temples and mathas serving as learning centers. Subjects like Vedas, Epics, Mathematics, and Medicine were taught. Tamil literature thrived, particularly in the domain of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy.
Notable Literary Works: Ramavataram, Periyapuranam, and More
The Cholas witnessed literary brilliance. Kamban immortalized the Tamil version of Ramayana in Ramavataram. Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam chronicled the lives of 63 Nayanmars. Jayakondar detailed Kulottunga I’s Kalinga war in Kalingattupparani. Ottakuthur wrote Moovarula, narrating the lives of Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga II, and Rajaraja II. Tamil grammar advanced through works like Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra.
Chola Inscriptions: Insights into Administration and Culture
Chola inscriptions were predominantly in Tamil, with some in Sanskrit and Grantham. They provide insights into temple administration and taxation. The Brihadeshwara Temple inscription explicitly states that the temple was constructed entirely with stone.
The Uttaramerur inscription describes the village administration system under Parantaka I, highlighting an early democratic governance model. The Thiruvalangadu inscription records a Chola attack on Vizhinjam, while inscriptions at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, and Thirubhuvanai reveal details about educational institutions.
Decline of the Cholas: Weak Successors and Pandya Ascendance
The Chola Empire gradually declined due to weak successors after Kulothunga I. The rising Pandya dynasty launched repeated invasions, weakening Chola dominance. In 1264 AD, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I sacked Gangaikonda Cholapuram, dealing a severe blow. By 1279 AD, Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I decisively defeated Rajendra Chola III, marking the end of Chola rule. Their remaining territories, including Kanchipuram, fell to the Telugu Cholas and the Pandyas, closing a glorious chapter in South Indian history.