After the decline of the Gupta Empire, several ruling families emerged, shaping the political landscape of North India. Some of these included:
Originally, many of these were subordinates of the Guptas. However, as the Guptas’ authority declined, they assumed independence. The 6th century was marked by constant conflicts among these ruling powers. During this time, the samantas (subordinates) emerged as influential figures. They controlled outlying areas and engaged in battles far from their overlords' political centers.
Some regions became more powerful due to their strategic locations. The factors that determined power included:
These powerful centers came to be known as Jayaskandhavaras (meaning ‘camp of victory’).
These Jayaskandhavaras played a crucial role in governance, as rulers issued land grants from these locations to religious institutions such as:
Many inscriptions mention these centers, allowing historians to trace the political conquests and territories of rulers. For example:
Kanauj, earlier known as Kanyakubja or Mahodaya, rose to prominence in early medieval North India due to its strategic advantages:
With its growing importance, political focus shifted from Pataliputra (modern-day Patna) to Kanauj. Kanauj became the central theme in post-Gupta North Indian politics.
Kanauj first appears in the Harshacharita as the power center of the Maukharis. Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler, was married to Rajyasri, sister of Harshavardhana. When Harsha ascended the throne, he chose Kanauj as his capital instead of Thaneswar (Haryana), which had been the seat of his predecessors.
One possible reason for this choice was the increasing threat of the Hunas, who were invading India from the northwest since the time of Skandagupta (5th century CE). Since Thaneswar was closer to the northwest, Kanauj provided a safer and more centrally located capital.
Historians like R. S. Sharma argue that Pataliputra declined due to the decay of trade and commerce, which was part of the process of feudalisation. Reasons for its decline included:
According to Sharma, Pataliputra symbolized the pre-feudal order, whereas the emergence of Kanyakubja marked the beginning of the feudal era.
However, some scholars challenge this theory. They argue that:
Kanauj’s importance was further highlighted in the Tripartite Struggle, a major conflict involving:
The goal of this struggle was to control Kanauj, which had become the royal capital since Harshavardhana’s rule. The historian H. C. Raychaudhuri and others extensively discussed this prolonged conflict.
Thus, the post-Gupta period was marked by a shifting political landscape, where new centers of power emerged, conflicts intensified, and the struggle for dominance reshaped North India’s history.
A variety of sources inform us about the rise of the family of Pushyabhutis, which first ruled from Thaneshwar in Haryana and later from Kanauj in Uttar Pradesh. These sources include:
According to Banabhatta, the founder of this dynasty at Thaneshwar was Pushyabhuti, and the family was known as the Pushyabhuti vamsha. However, Harsha’s inscriptions do not mention him.
The Banskhera and Madhuvan plates, along with royal seals, mention five earlier rulers, among whom the first three held the title of Maharaja, indicating they might not have been sovereign monarchs. The fourth king, Prabhakarvardhana, was given the title Maharajadhiraja, suggesting he had attained independent rule.
Prabhakarvardhana also formed important matrimonial alliances by marrying his daughter Rajyasri to Grahavarman of the Maukhari dynasty.
During Prabhakarvardhana’s reign (around 604 CE), the kingdom faced threats from the Hunas. Banabhatta describes him as “a lion to the Huna deer”. An army under Rajyavardhana was sent to defeat them, but he had to return due to his father’s illness.
Following Prabhakarvardhana’s death:
Now, it was Harsha’s responsibility to take revenge and restore the kingdom.
After Rajyavardhana’s death, Harshavardhana rescued his sister and, with no successor in the Maukhari dynasty, the ministers of Kanyakubja offered him the throne. Thus, he became the joint ruler of the Pushyabhuti and Maukhari kingdoms, making Kanyakubja his capital.
Many epigraphs and copper plate charters from this period make exaggerated claims of the king’s political conquests. These prashastis often depict the king as a chakravartin (universal emperor) who had accomplished digvijaya (conquering all directions).
Another key historical source is the charita kavyas (biographical poems) written by court poets. The most famous is:
This work portrays Harsha’s rise to power, highlighting his courage, intelligence, and moral uprightness.
The success of Harshacharita led to the rise of similar works, including:
This shows how Harshacharita set a precedent for rulers who wished to be glorified in poetry.
Another major source for this period is the account of the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang, who visited India from 629-645 CE. He spent considerable time at Harsha’s court and described him as the ruler of all of North India.
Since both Banabhatta and Xuan Zang were patrons of Harsha, their accounts glorify him and portray him as a great empire-builder of the post-Gupta period. Early historians, like Vincent Smith, considered Harsha as the last great Hindu emperor before medieval times.
Smith’s book, Early History of India, marks the end of an era with Harsha’s death in 647 CE, leading to the rise of the Rajput kingdoms and later, the Muslim era in Indian history.
Harsha ascended the throne in 606 CE as a ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, based in Sthanvisvara (modern Thanesar in Punjab).
His political activities can be understood through the rivalries he faced:
Harsha’s father, Prabhakaravardhana, had secured an important marriage alliance by marrying his daughter Rajyasri to Grahavarman of the Maukhari dynasty.
This marriage influenced the power balance of 7th-century North India, leading to conflicts with Gauda and Malava.
The Gauda king Sasanka and the Malava king Devagupta created turmoil by killing Grahavarman, the Maukhari king and Harsha's brother-in-law. They seized Kanyakubja, leading to the tragic loss of Rajyavardhana, Harsha’s elder brother, in the enemy camp.
Determined to restore order, Harsha rescued his sister, Queen Rajyasri. With no successor left, the ministers of the Maukharis offered him the throne. Thus, Harsha ascended to power, ruling both the Pushyabhuti and Maukhari territories. Seeking vengeance, he launched a campaign against Sasanka and other eastern rulers who defied him.
Despite his efforts, Harsha could not claim significant victories in eastern India before Sasanka’s death in c. 637 CE.
In the kingdom of Valabhi (Saurashtra), the Maitrakas ruled as vassals of the Guptas. The political landscape was complex:
Harsha eventually gained control over Valabhi, likely solidifying peace through a matrimonial alliance. Dhruvasena II Baladitya of the Maitraka dynasty married Harsha’s daughter, distancing himself from Pulakesin’s influence. This set the stage for an epic confrontation.
The Narmada River served as the boundary between Harsha’s kingdom and Pulakesin II’s territory. Their clash was legendary:
Despite this setback, Harsha’s rule remained influential in the north.
Harsha’s dominion extended over present-day Uttar Pradesh, south Bihar, and Odisha. He inherited Thanesar and controlled parts of Punjab and Rajasthan. His subordinate ally, Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa, further expanded his influence.
However, Harsha’s empire was not as vast as once believed. Historians caution against calling him “the last great Hindu emperor” or marking his reign as the end of ancient India.
Between 629-645 CE, Xuan Zang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, recorded Harsha’s reign:
However, Xuan Zang himself observed Harsha’s religious tolerance:
Interestingly, Harsha’s plays—Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, and Nagananda—begin with invocations to Brahmanical gods, suggesting that Xuan Zang may have overemphasized Harsha’s Buddhist patronage.
Very little data is available regarding the administration in Harsha’s reign. The various official designations seem to have continued from the days of the Guptas. Xuan Zang states that taxes were not heavy, and the king took one-sixth of the farmer’s produce as his share.
Harsha was a strong ruler who inspired confidence and loyalty among his ministers. According to Xuan Zang, he was industrious and divided his day into three periods:
Harsha maintained close contact with the common people through tours of inspection, where he traveled incognito. His knowledge of local geography and people’s temperament helped him select the right governors.
Harsha ensured seamless administration by convening personal audiences with tributary leaders. By 643 CE, there were about 20 such tributary leaders.
The highest title in Harsha’s reign was param bhattarakamaharajadhiraja, meaning “the noblest supreme king of kings”. Such titles became common from the Gupta era onwards.
The two primary sources, Bana and Xuan Zang, provide limited information about Harsha’s administration. However, inscriptions from Harsha, Pulakesin II, and contemporary rulers give valuable insights. During Harsha’s reign, civil and military departments were not clearly separated. Some top civil officers also functioned as military officials. The provincial and district administration followed the Gupta model, as seen in inscriptions from Damodarapura, Faridpur, and Basadha.
The political landscape of Harshavardhana’s time was fluid, with changing boundaries due to:
According to B. D. Chattopadhyaya, lineage ties were central to political formations, and there was no clear distinction between lineage and the state.
Inscriptions of subordinate kings refer to their overlord using the phrase tatpadanudhyata, meaning “meditating at his feet”. This signified a hierarchical political structure.
Unlike Western European feudalism, there was no formal contract between overlords and subordinates in India. The number of land grants increased from the 6th century, but secular land grants to feudatories were rare, challenging the idea of an emerging ‘feudal polity’.
The story of the Pushyabhuti dynasty and the rise of Harsha illustrates a period of political upheaval, strategic alliances, and heroic struggles. The legacy of Harshacharita influenced historical writing, while Xuan Zang’s accounts provided external validation of Harsha’s rule. His reign is often seen as the last major Hindu empire before the transition to medieval India.