The kingdom of Kashmir was strategically located between Punjab and Central Asia. In ancient times, it was primarily confined to the upper valley of the Vitasta (Jhelum River). The principal source of information about Kashmir's history is Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, a chronicle written in the 12th century A.D.
Kashmir was part of the Maurya Empire under Asoka, who constructed numerous stupas, monasteries, and the ancient city of Srinagar. After Asoka’s death, Kashmir gained independence under his son Jalauka. It later became a province of the Kushana Empire during the reign of Kanishka, who held the Third Buddhist Council in Kashmir. Subsequently, the region was ruled by the Hunas, with their leader Mihirakula constructing Siva shrines to gain religious favor.
The history of Kashmir formally begins with the rise of the Karkota or Naga Dynasty, established by Durlabhavardhana in 627 A.D. He began as an officer under Baladitya, the last king of the Gonanda Dynasty. Upon marrying Baladitya’s daughter and succeeding the throne, Durlabhavardhana established the Karkota rule.
Durlabhavardhana ruled for thirty-six years. During his reign, the famous Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang visited Kashmir. His accounts suggest that Durlabhavardhana’s dominions extended to regions like Takshasila (Rawalpindi), Simhapura (Salt Range), Urasa (Hazara), Punch, and Rajapura (Rajaori), covering parts of Western and Northwestern Punjab.
Durlabhavardhana’s son Durlabhaka succeeded him and ruled for fifty years. He had three sons — Chandrapida, Tarapida, and Muktapida. After Durlabhaka’s death, Chandrapida ascended the throne.
During Chandrapida’s reign, Kashmir faced an Arab invasion led by Muhammad-bin-Qasim. Chandrapida sought the assistance of the Chinese Emperor, although no help arrived. Despite this, Chandrapida successfully repelled the Arab forces. He was known for his piety and justice, but his reign ended tragically when he was murdered by his brother Tarapida.
The most prominent ruler of the Karkota Dynasty was Lalitaditya Muktapida, who ascended the throne in 724 A.D. and reigned for thirty-six years. Although his request for military support from China against the Tibetans was denied, Lalitaditya defeated the Tibetans and other northern tribes like the Dards, Kambojas, and Turks.
His most notable victory was over Yasovarman of Kanauj, making him the theoretical master of a vast territory. Lalitaditya’s campaigns expanded his rule to regions like Magadha, Gauda, Kamarupa, Kalinga, Deccan, and Karnataka. His conquests extended even to Dvaraka and Northwestern regions, including the Kambojas, Tukharas, Bhauttas (Tibetans), Daradas, and an Arab ruler named Mammuni. His achievements earned him the title of Universal Monarch.
Lalitaditya was a great patron of art and architecture. He constructed the magnificent Martanda Temple, dedicated to the Sun God, which remains one of the most remarkable relics of ancient Kashmiri architecture. He also built Buddhist Viharas at Hushkapura and temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu.
Following Lalitaditya’s death in 760 A.D., his sons Kuvalayapida and Vajraditya succeeded him. During Vajraditya’s reign, Hisham, the governor of Sindh (768-772 A.D.), invaded Kashmir and captured many prisoners.
Vajraditya’s son Jayapida, also known as Vinayaditya, emerged as a remarkable ruler and military leader like his grandfather Lalitaditya. He defeated the king of Kanauj and was a great patron of literature. His court was adorned with scholars such as Kshira, Bhatta, Udbhata, and Damodaragupta (author of ‘Kutianimata’). However, in his later years, Jayapida’s rule became tyrannical, and a conspiracy by the Brahmanas led to his downfall after a reign of thirty-one years.
After Jayapida, his son Lalitpida ruled for twelve years. He was infamous for his corrupt reign, heavily influenced by his concubine Jayadevi. After him, Brihaspati, Jayadevi’s son, assumed the throne. However, Jayadevi’s five brothers seized power, reducing the monarchy to a puppet regime. Their internal conflicts weakened Kashmir for the next forty years.
The Karkota Dynasty finally ended when Avantivarman, the grandson of Utpala, one of Jayadevi’s brothers, was crowned with the help of his minister Suyya in 813 A.D., marking the beginning of the Utpala Dynasty.
The Utpala Dynasty was founded by Avantivarman, who ruled from 855 A.D. to 883 A.D. with the assistance of his capable minister Suyya. Avantivarman implemented administrative reforms, ensured internal security, and restored state resources. He effectively suppressed the power of the Damaras, a class of rural aristocrats. He also established the city of Avantipur (modern Bantipur).
Known as a patron of learning, Avantivarman's court included renowned scholars such as Anandavardhana, the author of the Dhvanyaloka, as well as Ratnakara, Muktakana, and Sivasvamin.
After Avantivarman’s death in 883 A.D., a civil war erupted among the descendants of the Utpala dynasty. Ultimately, Shankaravarman, Avantivarman’s son, secured the throne with the support of his minister Ratnavardhana.
Shankaravarman pursued an ambitious foreign policy. His reign is marked by notable military campaigns:
However, Shankaravarman’s extensive military campaigns exhausted the treasury. In an attempt to recover resources, he imposed harsh taxes and forcibly collected revenue, leading to unrest. His reign ended tragically during an expedition through Hazara (Urasa).
Following Shankaravarman’s death, his son Gopalavarman (902-904 A.D.) ascended the throne with his mother Sugandha as regent. After his assassination, his so-called brother Sankata ruled but died within ten days.
With no direct heir, Queen Sugandha declared herself ruler. However, her reign was marked by instability as the Tantrins (Kashmir’s military guard) grew in influence and began asserting control over the throne.
When Sugandha attempted to appoint Nirjitavarman, a half-brother of Avantivarman, as her heir, the Tantrins deposed her. They placed Partha, the son of Nirjitavarman, on the throne in 906 A.D.
In 921 A.D., the Tantrins overthrew Partha and installed kings for personal gain, including Chakravarman and Suravarman.
Unmattavanti, the son of Partha, proved to be one of Kashmir’s worst rulers. His brief two-year reign ended with his death in 937 A.D.. He was succeeded by Suravarman II, who lasted only a week before being overthrown by the commander-in-chief Kamalavardhana.
Instead of assuming the throne himself, Kamalavardhana convened an assembly of Brahmanas to select the next king. They rejected him and appointed Yashaskara, the son of the former minister Prabhakara, as king. With Yashaskara’s accession, the Utpala Dynasty came to an end in 939 A.D..
Yashaskara (939-948 A.D.) restored peace and order in the country. After his death in 948 A.D., his minor son Samgramadeva ascended the throne. However, he was murdered by his minister Parvagupta just six months after his accession. Parvagupta usurped the throne in 949 A.D., gaining a reputation for his severe exactions. His reign was short, lasting only a year before his death in 950 A.D..
Following Parvagupta's death, his son Kshemagupta took the throne. Kshemagupta strengthened his position by marrying Didda, the daughter of King Simharaja of the Lohara Dynasty and the granddaughter of the Shahi king Bhima.
Kshemagupta’s reign came to an end with his death in 958 A.D.. His young son Abhimanyu succeeded him, with his mother Didda serving as the regent. Didda effectively controlled the administration and maintained her authority during Abhimanyu’s reign.
After the death of Abhimanyu in 972 A.D., his young son Nandigupta ascended the throne. However, Didda’s ambitions led her to eliminate Nandigupta and two other grandsons who succeeded him, consolidating power for herself.
In 980 A.D., Didda officially assumed the throne. As queen, she exercised absolute authority and ruled with determination. Her reign is marked by the consolidation of power and the suppression of opposition.
Before her death in 1003 A.D., Didda ensured the continuation of the Lohara Dynasty by appointing her nephew Samgramaraja as her successor.
Samgramaraja (1003-1028 A.D.) was a weak king, with the real power held by his Prime Minister Tunga. In 1014 A.D., Samgramaraja sent Tunga with a well-equipped army to aid Shahi Trilochanpala against Sultan Mahmud. After some initial success, Tunga was defeated. Samgramaraja died in 1028 A.D., and his son Hariraja succeeded him. Hariraja died just 22 days into his reign, after which Ananta took the throne.
Ananta crushed a rebellion of the Damaras and repelled an invasion by the Dards. He overthrew Salavahana, the king of Chamba, and installed his nominee on the throne. He also asserted supremacy over Darvabhisara, Trigarta, and Bhartula.
After Ananta’s death, Kalasha ascended the throne, followed by Utkarsha and then Harsha. Harsha restored Kashmir’s glory through effective administration and patronage of culture and learning. He sent an expedition against Rajapuri (Rajaori) and forced its ruler to pay tribute. He defeated his half-brother Vijayamalla, who had attempted to invade Kashmir with the support of the king of Darada.
However, Harsha’s extravagant spending exhausted the treasury. In 1101 A.D., he was killed by two of his kinsmen, Ucchala and Sussala, who established the Second Lohara Dynasty.
With Ucchala’s rule, the Second Lohara Dynasty began. He appointed his brother Sussala as the ruler of Lohara. Sussala faced numerous rebellions from the Damaras. Bhikshachara, the grandson of Harsha, led the Damaras and temporarily expelled Sussala, though Sussala regained the throne in 1121 A.D..
Sussala faced continuous opposition from Bhikshachara. In 1123 A.D., Sussala abdicated in favor of his son Jayasimha while retaining control. However, Sussala was treacherously murdered in 1128 A.D..
Jayasimha restored law and order in Kashmir but failed to capture Lohara and Darada. Eventually, he recovered Lohara. He established diplomatic relations with the Gahadavalas and the Silahara king of Konkan. After his death in 1155 A.D., his son Paramanuka succeeded him, but his rule was ineffective, controlled by his ministers.
Paramanuka died in 1165 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Vantideva. With Vantideva's death, the Lohara Dynasty began to decline. Among the subsequent rulers, Jagadeva (1198-1213 A.D.) was a notable and capable king. After his death, a civil war ensued, but his son Rajadeva eventually took the throne, succeeded by his son Samgramadeva.
Samgramadeva faced challenges from unruly nobles, aided by his brother Surya. In the civil war that followed, Surya was killed. Eventually, Kalhana’s influential family rose to power and murdered Samgramadeva in 1252 A.D..
Samgramadeva was succeeded by his son Ramadeva, who had no children. He adopted a Brahmin boy named Lakshmanadeva, who took the throne in 1273 A.D.. Despite being a learned man, Lakshmanadeva was defeated and killed by a Turk named Kajjala in 1286 A.D..
After Lakshmanadeva’s death, a power struggle led to the partition of Kashmir between Sangramachandra and Simhadeva. Initially, Simhadeva’s rule was limited to the Lidar Valley, but after the death of his rival, he gained control of the kingdom. Like other great Kashmiri kings, he established numerous religious and charitable institutions.