Learn about the Hoysala Dynasty's role in Karnataka's history, including their governance, military strength, and stunning temple architecture that stands as a cultural marvel.

The Rise and Expansion of the Hoysala Dynasty in South India

The Hoysalas of Dwarsmudra emerged in the Kannadiga region, gaining prominence during the 11th to 14th centuries in South India, with Belur as their initial center of activity. Eventually, the capital was shifted to Halebidu. At that time, major regional powers included the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Kakatiyas to the east, the Kalachuris, and the Yadavas of Devgiri in northern Karnataka. The decline of the Cholas and Pandyas facilitated the Hoysalas’ rise to dominance.

• Founders of the Hoysala Dynasty

  The founder of the Hoysala dynasty was Nripa Kama II, who served as a feudatory of the Western Gangas. His successor, Vinayaditya, expanded the Hoysala influence by subduing numerous Malnad chiefs from regions like Kongalvas, Chengalvas, Sandharas (Humcha, Shimoga), and the Kadambas of Bayal-nadu (Wynad). Ballal I further consolidated this territory, as confirmed by his inscriptions.



• Vishnuvardhana: The Real Founder

  Although Nripa Kama II established the dynasty, Vishnuvardhana is considered the true founder. The Ariskere inscription (1197 CE) praised him as a “devouring epidemic to Chera,” while the Channarayapatna record (1190 CE) referred to him as one who “broke down the bones of Chera-Kerala.” He defeated rulers of Ananale (Western Ghats), Elumale (modern Ezhimala near Kannur), and expanded his rule to Bayal-nadu (Wynad).

  The Belur record (1185 CE) marked the boundaries of his kingdom, stating:

  • South - Kongu
  • East - Kanchi
  • North - Rivers Krishna and Venna
  • West - Arabian Sea

  Under Vishnuvardhana, the Cholas and Pandyas were subdued. The last Perumal of Mahodayapuram, Rama Kulasekhara (1089-1122 CE), was forced to shift his base to Kurakeni Kolam due to Hoysala pressure.

• Hoysala Expansion Under Narasimha I

  Vishnuvardhana’s son, Narasimha I, further extended the kingdom to Vikramesvaram (Ramesvaram), solidifying Hoysala control. Territories such as Kongu, Bayal-nadu, and parts of Kerala were integrated into his domain.

• Hoysala-Chola Alliance Under Narasimha II

  During the reign of Narasimha II, a strategic alliance was formed between the Cholas and the Hoysalas. His daughter was married to Chola King Rajaraja II (1216-1256 CE), protecting the Cholas from Pandyan invasions. However, the Pandyas received support from minor Kerala chieftains, leading to further Hoysala military campaigns in the region, as referenced in the Channarayapatna record of 1223 CE.

• Somesvara and Hoysala Dominance

  The last significant Hoysala ruler was Somesvara, referred to in the Ariskere inscription (1239 CE) as the “sole protector of Chola-kula.” By 1229 CE, the kingdom’s boundaries reached:

  • East - Kanchi
  • West - Belur
  • North - River Krishna
  • South - Bayal-nadu (Wynad)

  His son-in-law, Rajaraja Chola III, was granted control over the Chera territories.

• Hoysala Decline and Delhi Sultanate Invasion

  Internal conflicts weakened the Hoysalas. During the reign of Narasimha III, power was divided between him and his half-brother Ramnath. The final blow came during the reign of Ballal III, when the forces of Alauddin Khilji, led by Malik Kafur, invaded Hoysala territory in 1310-1311 CE. Ballal III was forced to shift his base to Tiruvannamalai, marking the decline of the once-powerful Hoysala dynasty.

Hoysala Kingdom Administration and Role of Officials

The Hoysala kingdom had a well-defined administrative system with the king as the supreme authority. His primary responsibility was “to restrain the evil and to protect the good” (Coelho, 1950: 180). The king functioned as the final court of appeal and personally handled matters of justice. Crowned queens in the Hoysala kingdom also held administrative authority, while uncrowned queens had limited influence.

• Yuvaraja: The Heir-Apparent in Hoysala Kingdom

  The Yuvaraja served as the heir-apparent and second-in-command. Often appointed as a governor, the Yuvaraja held administrative responsibilities. However, his authority did not surpass that of the dannayakas or dandanayaks.

• Mandaleshvaras and Samantas in Hoysala Administration

  Mandaleshvaras were subject-princes, who were either independent rulers or former feudatories of the Chalukyas or Rashtrakutas. Their status was comparable to crowned queens. Below them were the mandalikas (petty rulers) and the samantas (frontier chiefs with hereditary lands).

• Dannayakas and Maha-Pradhans in Hoysala Bureaucracy

  The most significant officials in the Hoysala administration were the dannayakas or dandanayaks, who acted as army generals and prominent officeholders. Maha-Pradhans were the king’s trusted advisors. Distinguished officials received prestigious titles like:

  • Sarvadhikari - Supreme authority
  • Param-Visvasi - Trusted confidant
  • Bahattara-Niyogadhipati - Master of 72 officers

  Nayaks were military captains of the foot or cavalry forces. To ensure proper oversight, the king appointed Vicaris and Rajyadhyaksis (inspectors) to monitor the activities of the dannayakas.

• Foreign Affairs and Diplomacy in the Hoysala Kingdom

  The Sandhi-Vigrahi served as the minister of foreign affairs. His responsibilities included:

  • Forming alliances
  • Negotiating treaties
  • Engaging in warfare diplomacy

  These diplomatic efforts ensured the kingdom maintained strategic relations with neighboring territories.

• Military Commanders and War Honors in the Hoysala Empire

  Although the king often led military campaigns, generals, known as Senapatis or Samasta-Senadhipatis, were frequently entrusted with battlefield leadership. Many of these commanders were Brahmanas. Victorious commanders were awarded marks of honor, including the symbolic presentation of betel leaves.

  Furthermore, the families of generals who perished in battle received revenue-free grants for their support and sustenance.

• Urban and Rural Administration in the Hoysala Kingdom

  The Hoysala realm comprised predominantly non-Brahmana villages known as urs and smaller settlements called kaluvallis. A group of villages formed a nad/nadu (district) governed by officials:

  • Ad-Heheggade - Sheriffs
  • Nad-Prabhus - Deputy sheriffs

  Pattanas (market towns) thrived as centers of trade, attracting merchants from distant regions. Prominent merchant guilds like the Nanadesis operated in these towns. Pattanasvamis (mayors) oversaw the administration of these towns, while capital cities were referred to as Rajadhani-Pattanas.

• Law and Order in the Hoysala Kingdom

  Strict legal measures maintained law and order in the kingdom. Criminals faced severe punishments. To ensure the safety of travelers, armed guards often provided protection along highways.

  In cases where military campaigns resulted in crop damage, the kingdom compensated the affected civilians, reflecting the state’s commitment to justice and governance.

Hoysala Land Revenue and Trade Administration: Taxes, Merchants, and State Income

During the Hoysala dynasty, land revenue served as the primary source of state income. Land taxes were generally collected in kind. The permanent revenue settlement, known as siddhaya, varied between 1/6th to 1/7th of the gross produce (Coelho, 1950: 196). Land was measured using units called kambas, which differed regionally.

• Taxation System in the Hoysala Kingdom

  In addition to land revenue, the common people bore the burden of numerous taxes. Some of the significant taxes included:

  • Sunka - A tax imposed on individuals at each settlement.
  • Kumara and Kumara-Ganike - Levied for the Crown Prince.
  • Nibandha - A tax for royalties and pensions granted by the king.
  • Sri-Karana - Collected for the maintenance of the district treasury staff.

  Additionally, taxes were imposed for the upkeep of military resources:

  • Vira-Sese - A war tax to maintain soldiers and animals.
  • Khana-Nibandha - Fodder charges for royal horses.
  • Kudureya-Sese - A horse contribution tax during campaigns.
  • Aneya-Sese - A tax for the upkeep of royal elephants.
  • Bhatta - Paddy tax for the king's troops.
  • Kataka-Sese - A camp contribution tax.
  • Nallavu-Nallettu - A tax for the supply of cows and bullocks to the king during military campaigns.

  One-time taxes were also levied on special occasions, such as the king’s coronation (Pattabaddha) and the birth of a royal son (Putrotsaha).

• Fines and Local Taxes in the Hoysala State

  Fines, called Anyaya, were imposed for law-breaking. Additionally, local assemblies and landlords imposed numerous taxes with the king’s approval. Some examples included:

  • Maduve - Marriage tax
  • Tari Irai - Loom tax
  • Gana-Dere - Oil-press tax
  • Bannige - Dyer tax
  • Tottu-Dere - Concubine tax

• Agrahara Villages and Brahmanical Land Grants

  Agrahara villages were land grants given to Brahmanas for their upkeep. Hoysala inscriptions record around 104 instances of such villages. However, these grants were not without resistance. In one notable case, wealthy landlords (gaudas) resisted the conversion of their lands into agraharas, leading to a conflict where Brahmanas successfully defended their claims.

  Temple lands were also granted for religious purposes across all sects — Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Jaina — regardless of the king’s personal beliefs.

• Trade and Commerce in the Hoysala Dynasty

  Trade and commerce played a significant role in the state's income. Taxes on merchandise were generally collected in cash. The state relied heavily on merchants for the supply of:

  • Arms and weaponry
  • Elephants and horses
  • Luxury items and precious goods

  Wealthy merchants were often granted honorary titles like Rajasresthigal (royal merchants) and were considered the “pillar of the town” (Pura Mula Stambha).

• Merchant Guilds and International Trade in the Hoysala Period

  Prominent merchant guilds, such as the Ayyavole Ainnuruvar, had extensive trade networks, conducting business with regions like:

  • Anga
  • Vanga
  • Kalinga
  • Kashmir
  • Singhala
  • Chakragotta

  These merchants played a dual role as traders and administrators. Some even participated in military campaigns. For instance, the 1145 CE Ballaru inscription records the death of Dannayaka Nagrasetti in the battle of Sige.

• Merchant Settlements and Royal Patronage

  Merchants from regions like Gujarat (Lata), Kerala (Maleyala), Tamil Nadu (Tigula), and Andhra (Tellugu) settled in the Hoysala territories. Some merchants gained prominent positions, such as Pattanasvamis (mayors) and Pattanasettis.

  For example, the 1177-78 CE Kudalaru inscription mentions Marisetti, a bangle merchant of Ayyavole, who rose to the title of Mahaprabhu (great officer). His descendant, Perumadideva, later became the Mahapradhan (great minister) and Tantrapala (foreign minister) under Ballala II.

• Merchant Contributions to Religion and Infrastructure

  Merchants provided generous patronage to religious institutions. Inscriptions highlight their contributions to temple construction and repairs. Examples include:

  • The 1117 CE Sravanbelgola inscription records the construction of a Jaina temple by the mothers of royal merchants Poysalasetti and Nemisetti.
  • The 1188 CE Dyampura inscription states that the Bammeshvara temple was built by the son of merchant Bammisetti.

  Merchants also contributed to public infrastructure projects, including the reclamation of land, well digging, and tank construction. The 1027 CE Marasanahalli inscription records the excavation of the Arapamma tank at Sirivur by Sakayya, son of Palagesetti.

Hoysala Architecture Overview

• Overview

  Hoysala architecture is the building style in Hindu temple architecture developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, dominating the Southern Deccan Plateau region. Examples of this style include:

  • Chennakesava Temple at Belur
  • Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu
  • Kesava Temple at Somanathapura

  These three temples were accorded UNESCO World Heritage Site status in 2023. Other temples showcasing Hoysala craftsmanship include those at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Mosale, Arasikere, Basaralu, Kikkeri, and Nuggehalli.



• Architectural Influences

  Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western Chalukya influences. Later temples retained some features of Western Chalukya architecture but introduced unique Hoysala innovations in decoration and ornamentation. Around three hundred temples survive in present-day Karnataka, most concentrated in the Malnad districts, the native home of the Hoysala kings.

  • Architectural Classification

    Adam Hardy classifies Hoysala architecture as part of the Karnata Dravida tradition, distinct from the Tamil style. The tradition spans approximately seven centuries, from the 7th century under the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, evolving under the Rashtrakutas and Western Chalukyas before reaching its peak under the Hoysalas.

  • Temple Inscriptions

    Medieval inscriptions displayed at temple sites provide insights into donations, consecration details, and architectural specifics.



• Temple Deities and Worship

  Hindu temples in the Hoysala era evolved from simple shrines into elaborate structures designed for transcendence. While primarily dedicated to Shiva or Vishnu, some Hoysala temples were built for Jain worship. Notable sites include Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. Religious harmony was maintained, with as many temples dedicated to Shiva as to Vishnu.

  • Vaishnava and Shaiva Temples

    • Vaishnava temples, like the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, are dedicated to Keshava, an avatar of Vishnu.
    • Shaiva temples feature the Shiva Linga as a central element, such as the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu.

  • Jain Temples

    Some Hoysala temples, like those in Halebidu, contain sculptures of Jain Tirthankaras. Stepped wells, known as Pushkarni or Kalyani, were also constructed for ritual purposes.

  The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi Temple is an exception, as it is not dedicated to either Shiva or Vishnu but to Goddess Lakshmi.

Temple Complex

• Introduction

  The Hoysala temple complex is a unique architectural wonder, characterized by distinct structural elements and intricate carvings. These temples stand as testaments to the artistry of the local craftsmen of 12th century Karnataka, often constructed using soft soapstone (chloritic schist).



• Sanctum and Mantapa

  The focal point of the temple is the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) where the deity resides. Surrounding it are halls called mantapas, leading devotees through increasingly sacred spaces. Many temples feature a covered entrance porch, often supported by intricately designed, lathe-turned pillars. One such prominent example is the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura.



• Platform and Circumambulation

  Several temples are built on a raised platform known as a jagati, providing a designated path for pradakshinapatha (circumambulation). Devotees walk clockwise, following sculptural reliefs depicting stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Bucesvara temple at Korvangla lacks a jagati but retains similar artistic features.

Architectural Elements

• Mantapa Design

  The mantapa serves as a congregation hall, often with an elaborate overhead lintel called a makaratorana. Open mantapas are a common feature, incorporating decorative stone seating, supported by finely crafted pillars and ceilings with mythological motifs.



• Pillars and Carvings

  Hoysala temples are renowned for their lathe-turned pillars, with detailed carvings depicting salabhanjikas and madanikas. Each pillar is unique, showcasing artistic excellence. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a notable example.

• Vimana and Towers

  The vimana (shrine tower) follows a stellate or staggered square design, adorned with ornamental moldings and projections. The kalasa (finial) crowns the tower. The intricate towers of Belur and Halebidu are famous for their grandeur.

Sculpture and Art

• Iconography and Themes

  Hoysala art is distinguished by its elaborate iconography, featuring sculptures from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. Scenes of deities like Durga and Harihara are frequently depicted. Artisans often signed their work, marking a significant historical milestone.

• Mythological Depictions

  Sculptures portray epic narratives such as Arjuna aiming at a fish and the Sun God Surya. Additionally, Salabhanjika figures, inspired by ancient traditions, are placed on the outer walls for visual appeal during circumambulation.

• Erotic and Symbolic Art

  While the temples feature symbolic erotic sculptures, they are discreet and harmoniously integrated into the architectural design. Such artwork is often associated with the Shakta tradition.

The enduring legacy of Hoysala architecture continues to captivate scholars and visitors alike, celebrating the artistic and spiritual accomplishments of ancient India.