Indo-Scythians (Shakas) in Indian History - Migration, Rule, Influence & Decline

Understanding the Indo-Scythians (Shakas): Origins and Migrations

• Introduction:The Indo-Scythians, also known as Sakas, migrated into parts of Central Asia and north-western South Asia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE.
  • They were pastoralists and skilled horsemen,
  • Often attacking sedentary societies to acquire grazing land and livestock.
  • Following the death of Alexander the Great and the gradual diminution of his eastern empire, the Sakas infiltrated those lands to create states of their own.

• • Decline of Greek Kingdoms: The decline of the Greek kingdoms in the north-west coincided with an attack on Bactria by nomadic peoples from central Asia.
  • Nomadic Migrations: The Parthians and Scythians, referred to as Pahlavas and Shakas in Indian sources, weakened Bactrian power.
    • Scytho-Parthian Rule: Scytho-Parthian rule was established in north-western India around the Christian era.
    • Scythians' Origins: The Scythians inhabited regions around Lake Issykkul and the river Jaxartes in central Asia. They were attacked by the Yueh-chih/Yuezhi and forced to migrate.
    • Yueh-chih's Role: The Yueh-chih were originally pastoralists from the plains west of China, and their migration pattern created kingdoms over time.
  • Formation of New Kingdoms: The interaction between nomadic pastoralists and existing sedentary societies led to the formation of new kingdoms.
    • Nomads began to control and administer resources through tribute from sedentary societies.
    • Pastoralists, although they could become cultivators, often preferred to rule over cultivators due to their mobility and trade routes.
  • Shaka Culture and Society:
    • Shakas had a sophisticated culture, reflected in their elaborate burial chambers and social differentiation, including horse trappings and decorated grave goods.
    • Role of Horses: Horses played a central role in Shaka society, improving military capabilities with innovations like saddles, bridles, and the compound bow.
  • Geography and Trade: The geography of central Asia facilitated the expansion of pastoralism and trade, with fertile oases forming the nuclei of states and towns.
    • The Shakas and other nomadic groups played a significant role in trade between India, China, and central Asia, especially in silk and other goods.
    • Central Asian nomads, including the Shakas, were often intermediaries in trade, using their horses for transport and to facilitate exchanges.
  • Impact on Local Populations: The migration of these nomadic tribes, including the Hsiung-nu/Xiongnu and the Yueh-chih, displaced local populations, impacting both China and northern India.
    • As the Yueh-chih migrated westwards, they displaced the Scythians (Shakas) and established themselves around the Aral Sea before advancing into India.
    • The Shakas moved into Bactria, Parthia, and the Indus Plain, establishing control in western India as far as Mathura.
• The Shakas' Influence on India:
  • The Parthians, Shakas, and Yueh-chih arrived in India in succession, and their movements were part of the larger nomadic migration from central Asia that influenced the history of both India and China.
  • Trade and Administration: The pastoralists' trade activities increased, with Chinese silk and other goods moving westward to the Mediterranean and India.
    • Shakas became more involved in trade and administration, transitioning from pastoralism to a more organized, sedentary rule.
  • Shaka Kings: The Shakas’ entry into India is marked by historical events such as the reign of King Maues (c. 80 BC), who established Shaka power in Gandhara.
    • King Azes is associated with the creation of the era of 58 BC (Krita, Malava, or Vikramaditya Samvat), a period used in Indian chronology.
    • Mithradates II of Parthia also established a presence in India in the first century BC, followed by other Parthian rulers such as Vonones and Gondophares.
  • Shaka Administration: The Shaka administrative system followed Achaemenid and Seleucid models, with provinces governed by military leaders called mahakshatrapas (great satraps).
    • Local satraps were allowed to mint their own coins, indicating a degree of independence in their territories.
    • Shaka kings adopted imperial titles like 'great king' or 'king of kings,' reflecting their attempts to form an imperial structure.
• The Rise of the Kushanas:
  • The Shakas were eventually driven south by the Yueh-chih. A Chinese source mentions Kujula Kadphises, who united the Yueh-chih tribes and extended control over Bactria, Kabul, and Kashmir.
    • The Kushana kingdom, founded by Kujula Kadphises, later expanded through his successor Wema Kadphises, and became known for its coinage, including gold coins imitating Roman denarii.
  • Exchange of Goods and Culture: Historical records suggest that the Kushanas played a crucial role in the exchange of goods and culture between India, central Asia, and the Roman Empire.

History of Indo-Scythians (Shakas) in India

• After the Greeks, the Sakas controlled a much larger part of India than the Greeks did.
• There were five branches of the Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.
  • One branch of the Sakas settled in Afghanistan.
  • Another branch settled in Panjab with Taxila as their capital.
  • Third branch settled in Mathura, where they ruled for about two centuries.
  • Fourth branch established its hold over western India, where they continued to rule till the fourth century A.D.
  • Fifth branch of the Sakas established its power in the upper Deccan.



• First Saka King:The first Saka King in India was Maues or Moga.
• He established his power in Gandhara and spread out his power and supremacy in almost all regions of Northwest India.
• He defeated the Indo-Greek territories (in modern Pakistan) and established his governance as far as the River Jhelum.

Rule and Influence of Indo-Scythians (Shakas)

• Although the Sakas established their rule in different parts of the country, only those who ruled in western India held power for any considerable length of time, about four centuries or so.
• The most famous Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (A.D. 130-150).
• He ruled over Sindh, Kutch, and Gujarat, and had also recovered from the Satavahanas regions like Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa, and Kathiawar.
• He is famous in history for the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudarasana lake in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawar. This lake had been in use for irrigation since the time of the Mauryas.
• Rudradaman was a great lover of Sanskrit. Although a foreigner settled in India, he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. All the earlier longer inscriptions in this country were composed in Prakrit.
• The Sakas did not meet much effective resistance from the rulers and peoples of India.
  • Info Corner:
    • In about 58 B.C., a king of Ujjain effectively fought against the Sakas and succeeded in driving them out during his time.
    • He called himself Vikramaditya, and an era called the Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the Sakas in 58 B.C.
    • From this time onwards, Vikramaditya became a coveted title, similar to how Roman emperors adopted the title of Caesar.
    • As a result, there are as many as 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history, and the title continued to be fashionable with Indian kings till the twelfth century A.D.

Extent and Expansion

• Extent:The Sakas ruled over the north-west frontier, and in Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir, western Uttar Pradesh, Saurashtra, Kathiawar, Rajputana, Malwa, and the north Konkan belt of Maharashtra.
• They also fought against the Satvahanas in India, and later entered into matrimonial alliances with them, furthering their own integration into Indian society.

Coinage

• Indo-Scythian Coinage:Indo-Scythian coinage is generally of a high artistic quality, although it clearly deteriorates towards the disintegration of Indo-Scythian rule around AD 20.
• They continued the Indo-Greek tradition, by using the Greek language on the obverse and the Kharoshthi language on the reverse.

Art

• Buner reliefs:Indo-Scythian soldiers in military attire are sometimes represented in Buddhist friezes in the art of Gandhara.
• They are depicted in ample tunics with trousers, and have heavy straight swords as weapons.

Indo-Scythians and Buddhism

• Religious Practices:The Indo-Scythians seem to have been followers of Buddhism, and many of their practices apparently continued those of the Indo-Greeks.
• Excavations at the Butkara Stupa in Swat by an Italian archaeological team have yielded various Buddhist sculptures thought to belong to the Indo-Scythian period.

Decline of Shaka

• Decline:The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
• Eventually, the Saka rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to an end after the death of Azes II (12 BC) when the region came under the Kushanas.

Quick Reading on Shakas

The Scythians or Shaka: Introduction

The term Indo-Scythians refers to Scythians (Sakas) who migrated into Central and Northwestern South Asia between the middle of the 2nd century BCE and the 4th century CE. They settled in regions like Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Maues (Moga) was the first Saka king in India, establishing Saka power in Gandhara. Indo-Scythian rule ended with Rudrasimha III in 395 CE. The Indo-Scythian invasion was part of a larger nomadic movement triggered by conflicts like those with the Xiongnu.

Origins of the Scythians

The Sakas (Scythian tribes) were the ancestors of the Indo-Scythians. They were part of a cultural continuum across Siberia and the Central Eurasian steppe. Like the Scythians described by Herodotus, they were Iranian-speaking horse nomads who used chariots, sacrificed horses, and buried their dead in kurgans. A nomadic movement in the 2nd century BCE, triggered by the Yuezhi's defeat by the Xiongnu, displaced the Sakas. The Yuezhi migrated west, forcing the Sakas south into Ferghana and Sogdiana. The Sakas then moved towards Bactria, Parthia, and Afghanistan. They even sacked the Greek city of Alexandria on the Oxus. The Massagetae and Sacaraucae Sakas clashed with the Parthian Empire, killing kings Phraates II and Artabanus I, before being driven out.

Settlement in Sakastan

The Sakas settled in eastern Iran, in a region known as Sistan (Sakastan). From there, they expanded into the Indian subcontinent, becoming the Indo-Scythians. Mithridates II of Parthia had success against the Scythians, causing a section of them to move from Bactria to Drangiana (Sakastan). The presence of Sakas in Sakastan in the 1st century BCE is documented by Isidore of Charax.

Indo-Scythian Kingdoms: Abhira to Surastrene

The first Indo-Scythian kingdom in India covered areas from Abiria (Sindh) to Surastrene (Gujarat), around 110 to 80 BCE. They moved north into Indo-Greek territories. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes Scythian territories, including the river Sinthus and the cities of Barbaricum and Minnagara. The Indo-Scythians established a kingdom in Taxila, with satraps in Mathura and Surastrene. They were repelled from Ujjain in 57 BCE by Vikramaditya, who established the Vikrama era. Later, in 78 CE, they established the Saka era in Ujjain, marking the start of the Western Satraps kingdom.

Indo-Scythian Kingdoms: Gandhara and Punjab

During the 1st century BCE, the Scythians coexisted with the Indo-Greek kingdoms. Maues conquered Gandhara and Taxila around 80 BCE. After his death, Indo-Greek kings like Apollodotus II and Hippostratos ruled again. Azes I finally took control in 55 BCE. Archaeological finds at Sirkap include toilet trays and statuettes. The Bimaran casket, linked to Azes, is an early representation of the Buddha. The Indo-Scythians were associated with Buddhism, as evidenced by the Mathura lion capital.

Indo-Scythian Kingdoms: Mathura Area ("Northern Satraps")

The Indo-Scythians conquered Mathura around 60 BCE, with satraps like Hagamasha, Hagana, and Rajuvula. The Mathura lion capital describes a stupa gift by Queen Nadasi Kasa, Rajuvula's wife. Rajuvula defeated Strato II around 10 CE. The coinage became debased. The inscriptions mention Kharaosta Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuia. Yuvaraja Kharostes was the son of Arta, brother of Maues. Princess Aiyasi Kambojaka was Rajuvula's queen. The Kambojas and possibly Yavanas were associated with Mathura. The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura, the "Northern Satraps," became vassals of the Kushans, as shown by inscriptions from Kharapallana and Vanaspara.

Indo-Scythian Kingdoms: Pataliputra

The Yuga Purana describes a Scythian invasion of Pataliputra in the 1st century BCE. The Saka king killed a fourth of the population before being slain by the Kalinga king Shata and the Sabaras.

Western Kshatrapas Legacy

The Indo-Scythians maintained control over Seistan until the reign of Bahram II (276-293 CE), and held areas of India, including Kathiawar and Gujarat, as the Western Kshatrapas, until the 5th century. They were eventually conquered by the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). The Brihat-Katha-Manjari mentions Chandragupta II eliminating various "barbarians," including the Shakas. The Kavyamimamsa lists the Shakas alongside other tribes in the Uttarapatha division.

Indo-Scythian Coinage

Indo-Scythian coinage is generally of high artistic quality, though it deteriorated around 20 CE (coins of Rajuvula). The Western Satraps maintained a stereotypical coinage until the 4th century CE. Indo-Scythian coins blend Indo-Greek and Kushan styles, possibly benefiting from Greek celators. They used Greek on the obverse and Kharoshthi on the reverse. Instead of portraits, they depicted the king on horse, camel, or sitting cross-legged. The reverse featured Greek divinities. Buddhist symbolism was common, including the vitarka mudra, Buddhist lion, and triratana symbol.

Depiction of Indo-Scythians

Few artworks definitively represent Indo-Scythians. Rulers are typically shown on horseback in armor, but Azilises' coins show a simple tunic. Gandharan sculptures depict foreigners in soft tunics and Scythian caps, contrasting with Kushan representations. Buner reliefs show Indo-Scythian soldiers in tunics, trousers, and pointed hoods, often performing the Karana mudra. These reliefs were used on Buddhist stupa pedestals, alongside depictions of people in Greek attire. Another relief depicts them playing music and dancing. Stone palettes from Gandhara, combining Greek and Iranian influences, are considered representative of Indo-Scythian art, featuring figures in Greek, Parthian, and Indo-Scythian dress. One palette shows an Indo-Scythian horseman riding a winged deer.

The Indo-Scythians and Buddhism

The Indo-Scythians were followers of Buddhism, continuing practices of the Indo-Greeks. They made numerous Buddhist dedications, as seen in the Taxila copper plate inscription and Mathura lion capital inscription. Excavations at the Butkara Stupa yielded Buddhist sculptures from the Indo-Scythian period, including an Indo-Corinthian capital with coins of Azes. Reliefs showed Indo-Scythians with tunics and pointed hoods alongside Buddhas. Other reliefs depict Indo-Scythians with Dionysos and Ariadne. The Mathura lion capital mentions a relic of the Buddha and uses Buddhist symbols and phrases.

Indo-Scythians in Literature

Scythian territory near the Indus mouth is mentioned in Western maps and travel descriptions like Ptolemy's world map, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and the Tabula Peutingeriana. The Periplus mentions Minnagara as the capital of Scythia and distinguishes it from Ariaca. In India, they were called "Shaka," mentioned in texts like the Mahabharata, Puranas, Manusmriti, and others. They are described as part of an amalgam of warlike tribes from the northwest.