Delve into the history of the Pallava Dynasty, their political rise, architectural legacy, and how their influence shaped early medieval South Indian culture and temples.

The Rise of the Pallavas and Their Cultural Influence

After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted for approximately 250 years. Following this period, the Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam, with its capital at Kanchipuram. The Pallava rule continued until the beginning of the 10th century A.D., when Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed by the Imperial Cholas. The period from the latter half of the 6th century to the first half of the 10th century A.D.—a span of four hundred years—marked a pivotal epoch in the history of South India and its culture. During this time, three major dynasties rose to prominence: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and the Pandyas of Madurai. These dynasties not only held paramount political power but also played a significant role in the revival of Hinduism. They were major contributors to the development of art and architecture in their respective regions, with a keen competition among them. This competition, rather than leading to the destruction of each other's art, resulted in the flourishing of artistic monuments in stone. The Pallavas of Kanchi became the central power both geographically and culturally, pioneering rock-cut architecture and sculpture in the region. In contrast, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas continued the pre-existing tradition of rock-cut art. Pallava art, however, stood distinct in its material and technique. This chapter will delve into the history and contributions of the Pallavas in shaping the culture of South India.

Sources of Pallava History

The history of the Pallavas is primarily derived from two major categories: native and foreign sources. These sources provide a rich insight into the cultural, political, and social aspects of the Pallava dynasty. They can be further classified into literary and archaeological sources, with both Tamil and Sanskrit literature serving as key components of the literary record.

• Literary Sources
  • Tamil Literature

    • The Azhalvars and Nayanmars, who lived during the Pallava period, are important contributors to Tamil literature. Their songs provide valuable insights into the religious and social life of the time.

    • The Nalayira Divya Prabhandam, composed by the Azhalvars, and the Panniru Thirumurais, compiled from the songs of the Nayanmars, are key works that reflect the period’s devotion to religion and social practices.

    • The Periyapuranam, written by Sekizhar, is another essential literary source that offers detailed descriptions of Pallava society and its religious landscape.

  

  • Sanskrit Literature

    • Sanskrit texts like Avani Sundari Katha by Dandin and Loga Vibagam by Sarva Nandi shed light on the significance of Simhavishnu and his reign.

    • Mahendravarman I, a renowned Pallava king, authored Mathavilasa Prakasanam in Sanskrit. This text offers insights into the social and religious conditions during his reign.

• Foreign Sources

  • Foreign records like the Deepavamsa and Mahavamsa, written in Pali, detail the interactions between the Pallava kings, such as Narasimhavarman I, and the Sri Lankan king, Manavarman.

  • The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom, and his account, known as Siyuki, provides a comprehensive description of Kanchipuram, the capital of the Pallavas. He also highlighted the Buddhist Viharas and the social and economic life in the Pallava kingdom.

• Archaeological Sources

  • Copper plates, inscriptions, monuments, and coins are crucial archaeological sources that help reconstruct Pallava history.

  • The Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudra Gupta mentions the Pallava king Vishnu Gopa, while the Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II discusses the Pallava-Chalukya conflict.

  • Notable inscriptions, such as the Mahakuta Pillar inscriptions, recount military victories, while the Kenthoor Stone Carving of Keethivarman also provides details of the period.

  • Copper plates, like the Kuram Copper Plates issued by Parameshwaravarman and the Velurpalayam Copper Plates of Nandivarman III, record military achievements and further contribute to our understanding of the Pallava dynasty.

  • The temples, sculptures, and monuments from the Pallava period are valuable resources, providing both artistic and historical insights. Additionally, coins from the period reveal the economic conditions of the time.

Origin of the Pallavas

Very little reliable information on the origin of the Pallavas is available. Various theories have been proposed, though none are supported by definitive evidence. Some scholars suggest that the Pallavas were a branch of the Pahleves of Parthians, but this theory lacks concrete proof. Another opinion is that the Pallavas were an indigenous dynasty that rose to power after the disintegration of the Andhra Empire.

• The Pallavas as Indigenous Dynasty

  • It is suggested that the Pallavas emerged as a dominant force after the Andhra Empire fragmented. Their leaders are believed to have gathered various tribes such as the Kurumbas and Moravars, forming a strong community.

  • According to Srinivas Aiyangar, the Pallavas may have belonged to the ancient Naga people, a mix of Negri, Australasian, and other racial elements. They initially lived in the Tondaimandalam district around Madras and later expanded their influence to other regions like Tanjore and Trichinopoly.

  • They were considered hereditary enemies of Tamil Kings, with the term "Palava" even coming to mean a rogue in Tamil. A section of the Pallavas, who settled in the Chola and Pandya regions, were referred to as "Kallar" or thieves.

• The Pallavas as Descendants of a Chola Prince

  • Another theory suggests that the Pallava dynasty originated from a Chola prince and a Naga princess from Manipallavam, an island near Ceylon. According to this theory, the son born from their union was made the king of Tondaimandalam.

  • This theory claims that the dynasty was named after the mother’s homeland. However, this view has been challenged due to their constant conflict with the Cholas and their northern characteristics, which contrasted with the Cholas.

• The Pallavas as a Branch of the Vakatakas

  • Dr. K.P. Jayaswal proposed that the Pallavas were a branch of the Brahmin dynasty of the Vakatakas. Evidence for this is scarce, with the only early epigraphic records being in Prakrit, while later ones are in Sanskrit.

  • Hiuen-Tsang also noted that the Pallavas’ language and literature were similar to those of northern India, while the Talagunda inscription identifies the Pallavas as Kshatriyas.

In conclusion, while there are several theories about the origin of the Pallavas, none are fully supported by adequate evidence. The most widely accepted view is that the Pallavas were natives of Tondaimandalam. They were also identified with the Pulindas mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions. When the Satavahanas conquered Tondaimandalam, the Pallavas became their feudatories. After the decline of the Satavahanas in the third century A.D., the Pallavas gained independence. Their early inscriptions, which were in Prakrit and Sanskrit, reflected their connections with the Satavahanas and their patronage of Brahmanism.

Political History of Early Pallava

• The history of the Pallavas can be broadly divided into two major sections: those who ruled before AD 600 and those who ruled after AD 600. The former could be called the early Pallavas and the latter the Imperial Pallavas. The word Imperial is used here to indicate powerful rulership over an extended kingdom.

• The earlier among the early Pallavas could be further divided into those who issued the Prakrit charters and those who issued the Sanskrit charters. In fact, there are only three rulers connected with the Prakrit charters. The first ruler clearly mentioned is Sivaskandavarman. Many historians shorten his name to Skandavarman without basis. Sivaskandavarman is also referred to as Yuvaraja, indicating that his father, whose name is unknown, was also a ruler.

• Simhavaraman, possibly the father of Sivaskandavarman, is mentioned in a Prakrit stone inscription from the Guntur district. This Sivaskandavarman had a son Buddhavarman, who had a son named Buddhyankura, born to the queen Charudevi.

• The Charudevi's grant in Prakrit mentions early Pallava rulers starting with Bappa, but it is unclear if Bappa was the founder of the Pallava power, as "Bappa" simply means "father".

• Early Pallava contact with Kanchi is indicated in the Mayidavolu copper plate grant and Hirahadagalli copper plate grant issued by Sivaskandavarman. These records show that Sivaskandavarman assumed the title of Dharma Maharaja and performed the Asvamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.

• Vishnugopa, a ruler from the middle of the fourth century AD, is unconnected with the other rulers mentioned above. He is known from the Allahabad pillar inscription, which records his defeat by Samudragupta in his Digvijaya.

• Thus, the Prakrit charters mention five rulers: Simhavarman, Sivaskandavarman, Bappa, Buddhavarman, and Buddhyankura. The Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Vishnugopa, making a total of six rulers preceding those mentioned in the Sanskrit charters of the Pallavas.

• The main sources for the history of the later rulers among the early Pallavas are a number of Sanskrit charters, some of which are genuine and others doubtful. The reliable charters include:

  • Ongodu I grant of Skandavarman
  • Uruvapalle and Singarayakonda plates of Yuva Maharaja Vishnugopa
  • Ongodu II, Pikira, Mangaduru, Vilavatti plates of Simhavarman
  • Chura grant, Udayendiram plates of Nandivarman I
  • Chendalur plates, and Pallangoil plates

• These grants primarily mention the names of kings and are of a purely socio-religious nature, making it difficult to construct the political history of that age from them. Other inscriptions, like the Penugonda plates of the Western Gangas, mention two Pallava rulers, Simhavarman and Skandavarman, being involved in the anointment and crowning of Ganga rulers.

• The Penugonda plates and the Lok Vibhaga (a Jain work written in AD 458) help in the precise dating of early Pallava chronology. The Velurpalayam plates of Nandivarman III give a long list of early Pallava rulers, including Asokavarman, who some mistake for the Mauryan Emperor.

• The Pallavas continued many traditions of the Satavahanas, and the general political system under them remained largely the same. They were Hindus who worshipped either Siva or Vishnu and performed Vedic sacrifices.

• The first among the later Pallava rulers was Simhavarman (c. 550-600). He is identified with the Saiva devotee Ayiadigal Kadavarkon, whose history is narrated in the Periyapuranam. He is credited with 24 verses in praise of Siva in the Kshetra Tiruvenba, part of the eleventh Tirumurai of the Saiva canon.

• During Simhavarman's reign, the Pallava kingdom began to expand, a process that was mainly achieved by the crown prince. Tradition states that Simhavarman abdicated the throne and left his son Simhavishnu to govern.

• Simhavishnu, also known as Avanisimha, Chatrumalla, etc., is mentioned in the Velurpalayam plates as the son of Simhavarman. He is known for extending the kingdom southward, destroying the Kalabhras, and defeating the Cholas, Pandyas, and the Malavarayas.

• He is also associated with the Siyyamangalam Cave Temple and the excavation of the Adivaraha Temple at Mahabalipuram. It is probable that this monolithic temple was constructed during his reign, marking a significant development in the architectural and sculptural traditions of Mahabalipuram.

The Heydays of Pallava

• From the mid-6th century, for the next 200 years, the Pallavas were the dominant South Indian power with the other three dynasties having only subordinate status. The Pallava king, Simhavishnu Pallava recorded a boast in the last quarter of the 6th century that he had ‘vanquished the Pandyas, Cholas, and the Cheras as well as the ruler of Ceylon’. At the greatest spread of its territorial expansion, the Pallava kingdom encompassed the whole of Arcot, Chinglepet, Madras, Trichinapolly, and Tanjore districts and stretched from the Orissa frontier in the north to the River Pennar in the south. Its eastern border was the Bay of Bengal and in the west, the kingdom bordered an imaginary line drawn through Salem, Bangalore, and Berar. In the 7th century, it attained the highest point in its power and fame. However, during the same period, the Pallavas also lost the Vengi province to the Chalukyas, which was never recovered. Some prominent rulers of this period are discussed below.

• Mahendravarman I (600-630 A.D.)

  • The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began during his period. Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and captured the northern part of their kingdom. Although a Pallava inscription refers to the victory of Mahendravarman I at Pullalur, he was not able to recover the lost territory. Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career. He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He built a Siva temple at Tiruvadi. He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples), Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta, and Mattavilasa.

  • He was a great builder of cave temples. The Mandagappattu inscription hails him as Vichitrachitta who constructed a temple for Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva without the use of bricks, timber, metal, and mortar. His rock-cut temples are found in a number of places like Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Mandagappattu, and Tiruchirappalli. He had also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in painting. He is also regarded as an expert in music. The music inscription at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.

  • All available information point to Mahendravarman I being one of the greatest South Indian kings of all times. Militarily he was the counter-point to the offensive ambition of the Chalukyas; by converting to the Shaiva belief system he provided a new impetus to the building up of its dwindling fortunes; being himself an artist and a litterateur, he glorified the practice of poetry and music through his patronage; and he created the rock-cut temple structures, a concept that had its origins in the banks of the River Krishna and which the king imported from his ancestral Telugu lands to the banks of the Rivers Palar and Kavery in the Tamil South. This style of construction came to be subsequently named Pallava art. Further, his reign was relatively peaceful and he opened a new era of prosperity in an otherwise difficult age.

• Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)

  • Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, which means ‘great wrestler’. He wanted to take avenge the defeat of his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. His victory over Pulakesin II in the Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram copper plates. The Pallava army under General Paranjothi pursued the retreating Chalukya army, entered Chalukya territory, captured, and destroyed the capital city of Vatapi. Narasimhavarman I assumed the title Vatapikonda. He regained the lost territory.

  • Another notable achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka. He restored the throne to his friend and Sri Lankan prince Manavarma. During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. His description of Kanchi is vivid. He calls it a big and beautiful city, six miles in circumference. It had 100 Buddhist monasteries in which about 10,000 Buddhist monks lived. According to his account, the people of Kanchi esteemed great learning and the Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great centre of learning. Narasimhavarman I was the founder of Mamallapuram and the monolithic rathas were erected during his reign.

• Paramesvaravarman I (670-695 A.D.)

  • Narasimhavarman was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II. He ruled for about two years from about 668-670. There is no important event of his reign. He was succeeded by his son, Paramesvaravarman I, who ruled from about 670 to about 695 A.D. The Gadaval Plates were issued by Vikramaditya Chalukya Vallabha while he was camped in the Chola kingdom in preparation for the third major incursion into the Pallava kingdom. Paramesvaravarman, the ruling Pallava king, initially managed to keep the Chalukya army at bay.

  • However, in a decisive battle fought in 674, the Chalukyas were victorious, and Paramesvaravarman escaped north to Andhra country, the original home of the Pallava dynasty. The Chalukya army marched through the heartland of the Pallava kingdom unmolested and captured the capital Kanchi. Vikramaditya celebrated his victory by inscribing the date and details of the capture of Kanchi at the base of the Kailasanatha temple there. Subsequently, in the long-drawn battle of Peruvallanattar, Paramesvaravarman put Vikramaditya to flight, forcing him to return to his own kingdom.

  • In the Pallava records, Paramesvaravarman is described as ‘Ugradanda, the destroyer of the city of Ranarasika’, obviously a reference to Vikramaditya who is referred to in the Gadaval Plate as Ranarasika. Some sources maintain that this victory over the Chalukyas was orchestrated by a Confederacy of Tamil kings under the leadership of the Pallava king and that the Ceylon king Manvamma also took part in the battle.

• Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695-722 A.D.)

  • Narasimhavarman II became the ruler of the Pallava kingdom after the death of his father Paramesvaravarman. He was also known as Rajasimha. His regime was peaceful and he evinced more interest in developing art and architecture. The Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built in this period. He was also a great patron of art and letters. The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished during his reign. Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta, Vadhyavidyadhara, and Agamapriya.

  • He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman II, who ruled from about 722 to about 730 A.D.

• Nandivarman II (A.D 730-780)

  • Nandivarman had come to the throne as a minor, at the age of 12, and was only 22 when the Chalukyas set out to avenge their previous defeat at the hands of his grandfather. The war was initiated by the Chalukyas who achieved total surprise, arriving at the gates of Kanchi unexpectedly. The young king, who was left without any allies to call upon, fled to a fort leaving his capital unprotected—the Chalukya army captured Kanchi with ease and the Pallava kingdom was open to the invaders, left without protection.

  • However, the Chalukyas did not annex the territory, but withdrew to their country with a sizeable booty. It is possible that they left a member of the Royal family as the de facto ruler of the Pallava territory, who acknowledged Chalukya suzerainty. The mention of one Chitramaya, as the Pallava king around this time gives credence to this story.

  • Nandivarman overthrew this Chalukya ruler and reclaimed his throne. However, he could not even attempt a revenge attack on the Chalukyas for his defeat, mainly for two reasons. One, the Pallava kingdom was by now a tired enterprise, war-weary and without the resources necessary to embark on a major campaign. Two, its southern borders were being constantly troubled by the harassment of the Pandyas whose growing power was becoming obvious. The southern incursions had to be countered through military might, leaving no spare capacity to plan or conduct a campaign against the Chalukyas. In combination, these two factors gradually brought the Pallava dynasty to a state of continuous decline.

Successor of Nandivarman

• Nandivarman was followed on the throne by a number of ineffectual kings who continued to lose territory and ruled an ever-shrinking kingdom. These kings were:

• Dantivarman (795-846 A.D.)

  • Dantivarman lost most of the southern provinces to a Pandyan expedition.

• Nandivarman (846-869 A.D.)

  • Nandivarman battled the Pandyan king for an extended period of time but ultimately lost the conflict.

• Kampavarman (870-885 A.D.)

  • Very little is recorded about the reign of Kampavarman.

• Aparajitavarman (888-903 A.D.)

  • Aparajitavarman was the last known Pallava king who was overthrown by Aditya Chola.

  • With his overthrow, the Pallava dynasty came to an end.

• It is perhaps a quirk of fate that the last Pallava king, who was overthrown and whose ultimate fate remains unknown, was named ‘Aparajita’, which literally means ‘the one who cannot be defeated’. Perhaps the naming of the crown prince as someone who is invincible was wishful thinking on the part of his predecessor, who must have seen the writing on the wall that the Pallavas were hurtling towards extinction.

• The final outcome of the 100-year war between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas was the ultimate destruction of both dynasties.

• The Chalukyas were an inherently aggressive dynasty, raising the ire of all their neighbors and therefore being continually at war. By the middle of the 8th century, their energy was sapped, and they became prey to the equally aggressive and ambitious Rashtrakutas.

• The Pallavas, who had arrived on the scene about a century after the Chalukyas had established themselves, survived for another century after the demise of the Chalukyas but in a state of exhausted decline. They were no match for the Pandyan ambition and went under without a whimper.

• The Pallava rule lasted until the end of the ninth century A.D. The Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the rule of the Pallava dynasty came to an end.

Administration of the Pallavas

• The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system.

• King

  • The king was at the center of administration and was assisted by able ministers.

  • The kings claimed their descent from the God Brahma.

  • Kingship was hereditary, but on one occasion, a king was elected.

  • Most of the kings were accomplished scholars. Mahendravarman I wrote the famous burlesque, Masttavilasa Prahsana.

  • Many of the Vaishnava Alvars and Saiva Nayanars flourished during their rule.

  • The kings adopted high-sounding titles like maharajadhiraja, dharma-maharajadhiraja, agnistomavajpeya, and asvamedha-yaji.

  • The kings were assisted by ministers, and the ministerial council played a significant role in state policy.
  • The king maintained a well-trained army and provided land-grants to temples known as Devadhana and to Brahmins known as Brahmadeya.
  • The central government also provided irrigation facilities, with several irrigation tanks dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.

• Administrative Divisions

  • The Pallavas had a vast empire, extending from the Nellore district in the North to the river South Pennar in the South, and from the Western Ghats in the West to the Bay of Bengal in the East.
  • The empire was divided into several administrative units: Mandalam, Kottam, Nadu, and Ur.

  • Mandalam

    • The biggest unit of the Pallava Empire was the Mandalam (or Rashtra), which was almost an autonomous unit.
    • The Pallava king appointed a prince or Yuvaraja as the governor of a Mandalam to have direct central control over the provinces.

  • Kottam

    • Each Mandalam was divided into several Kottams or Vishayas. The number of Kottams varied based on the size of the Mandalam.

  • Nadu

    • The next administrative unit was Nadu, which was bigger than Oor or Village.

  • Oor

    • The Oor or village was the smallest administrative unit, controlled by village committees called Sabhas.

• Officials Under the Pallavas

  • A hierarchy of officials existed in provincial administration. The governor of a province was assisted by district officers.
  • The village assembly, known as Sabha, dealt with various matters like endowments, irrigation, crime, census, and other records.
  • Judicial courts at the town and district level were presided over by government officials, with the king as the supreme arbiter of justice.
  • The Sabha worked in close association with the urar, an informal gathering of the entire village.
  • The head of the village was the link between the village assembly and the official administration.

• Land Pattern

  • Theoretically, the king owned all the land.
  • There were three major types of villages: inter-caste villages, Brahmadeya villages, and Devadana villages.
  • In Devadana villages, the revenue was donated to a temple, and the temple authorities provided employment for the villagers when possible.
  • Another type of land was Sripatti or tank land, where the revenue was used for the maintenance of the village tank.

• Taxation System

  • Land revenue was typically one-sixth to one-tenth of the produce and was paid to the state.
  • Local taxes collected in a village were used for its own needs.
  • In addition to land revenue, the state imposed taxes on draught cattle, marriage parties, potters, textile manufacturers, and others.
  • The major source of revenue was land tax, though mercantile activity was not fully exploited.
  • Taxes were also collected from artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, and weavers.

• Expenditure

  • Most of the revenue was spent on maintaining the army. The king preferred a standing army over feudal levies.
  • The army consisted of foot soldiers, cavalry, and elephants, with a focus on defense and maritime trade.
  • The Pallavas developed a navy, although mercantile activity was limited. Two dockyards were built at Mahabalipuram and Nagapattinam to assist maritime trade with Southeast Asia.

• A well-organized administration existed in the Pallava kingdom, based on the Mauryan system, with several modifications. This system ensured peace and order throughout the kingdom, as evidenced by inscriptions and literature from the period.

Society under the Pallavas

• The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.

• The caste system became rigid, and the Brahmins occupied a high place in society.

  The Brahmins were given land-grants by the kings and nobles, along with the responsibility of looking after the temples.

• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.

  The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of these two religions. This is known as the Bhakti Movement.

  They composed their hymns in the Tamil language, which revealed the importance of devotion or Bhakti.

• The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of these two religions.

• The Pallava rule had witnessed a drastic change in the social and economic life of the people, primarily due to the Bhakti Movement.

  It was further stimulated by the temple-building activity of the Pallava kings. There was also a remarkable growth of the economy during this period.

  In general, there was a tremendous change in society and culture during the Pallava rule.

• Social Structure

  • The society under the Pallavas was chiefly divided into four categories: Brahmins, Kshatryas, Vaisyas, and Sudras.

  • Besides these four, there were other sub-castes in society based on occupation.

  • Brahmins

    • The Brahmins occupied the first place in society. They were the learned and most respected.
    • They lived in separate places called Agraharams, where they recited Vedas and performed pooja in temples.
    • The Pallava kings made extensive land grants to them, known as Brahmadeyas.
    • The Brahmins helped the kings in performing sacrifices and held higher positions in the government.

  • Kshatryas

    • The Kshatryas were the next in the social hierarchy, generally belonging to the ruling class.
    • They had become warriors and gave liberal donations to the temples and Brahmins.

  • Vaisyas

    • Those who indulged in agriculture and trade were known as Vaisyas.
    • They contributed to society by establishing Mutts and choultries, and committed to public welfare.

  • Sudras

    • The Sudras occupied the lowest place in the social structure, remaining low-grade servants.
    • The literature of the Pallava period refers to them as pulayar and chandalas.
    • However, a few of them became religious saints due to their devotion to God.

• Status of Women

  • The women from royal and rich families enjoyed high status, with property rights and were pious and religious.
  • They granted liberal donations to the temples and Brahmins, and chastity was considered a noble virtue.
  • Women from middle and lower strata of society had to work hard for a living, engaging in spinning, weaving, and other similar activities.
  • There were also separate dancing girls employed in temples due to their talent in music and dance.

• Food, Dress, and Ornaments

  • Rice was the staple food of the people during the Pallava period, along with milk, ghee, and curd.
  • Generally, people wore simple dresses made of cotton, while the rich favored silk garments.
  • The sculptures from this period depict various types of ornaments such as earrings, bangles, necklaces, and anklets.

Education and Literature

• The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.

• The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.

  The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.

  Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer, came to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanda University, belonged to Kanchi.

• Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived during the time of Simhavishnu.

  Dandin, another Sanskrit writer, adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II.

• Mahendravarman I composed the Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam.

• Tamil literature also developed. The Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil.

  The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent the religious literature of the Pallava period.

• Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in Tamil.

  Nandikkalambagam was another important work, but the name of the author is not known.

• Music and dance also developed during this period.

• Literature

  • The age of the Pallavas synchronized with the religious awakening in Tamil Nadu. It was an age of religious movement.

  • A large number of devotional hymns were sung by the Vaishnava and Siva leaders.

    It was a Renaissance in Sacred literature.

  • The Siva and Vaishna literature were mostly composed during this period.

    The language of Tamil grew well under the Pallavas. Side by side with Tamil, Sanskrit also made progress.

  • The Pallava rulers patronized Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil.

    Kanchi was a great centre of learning that imparted Sanskrit knowledge.

  • Many people were attached to the learning centres of Kanchi. Vatsayana, Dinnaga, and Mayurasarman were some of the noted figures who had studied at Kanchi.

  • Kanchi produced eminent scholars, some of whom were employed in North India and other places.

    Dharmapala was one among them and served as the Vice-Chancellor of Nalanda University.

• Ghatika

  • The Pallava capital Kanchi was an education centre in South India. Yuan Chwang, the Prince of Pilgrims, visited Kanchi during the reign of Mahendravarman I.

  • There was a college at Kanchi called Ghatika, where several neighbouring monarchs studied. At Kanchi, Vedas, Grammar, and Upanishads were taught, all in Sanskrit.

  • Yuan Chwang mentions that Dharmapala, the Vice-Chancellor of Nalanda University, was a native of Kanchi.

  • In addition to Kanchi, several Sanskrit colleges were established and patronized by the Pallavas in Kaveripakkam and Pahur.

• Hindu Centres of Learning

  • The Brahmadaya villages, Hindu temples, and the mathas served as centres of learning.

  • The Brahmins were well-read in Vedic texts and imparted Sanskrit education.

  • The Kailasanatha temples at Kanchi were storehouses of public documents. The mathas provided boarding and lodging to students and teachers.

• Buddhist Centres of Learning

  • Yuan Chwang mentions the presence of Buddhist learning centres in Tamil Nadu.

  • Vinaya Pitaka was taught in the Buddhist centres of learning.

  • In Kanchi, the Buddhist centres of learning flourished. Like the Buddhist centres, there were also Jain centres of learning.

Pallava Art and Architecture

• It was a great age of temple building. The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from rock. In fact, the Dravidian style of temple architecture began with the Pallava rule. It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminating in structural temples. The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.

• Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style of Pallava temples can be seen at places like Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam, and Tirukalukkunram.

• The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at Mamallapuram. Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments. The five rathas, popularly called the Panchapanadava rathas, signify five different styles of temple architecture.

• The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on their walls. The most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam, and Varaha Madapam.

• In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples. These temples were built using soft sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the greatest architectural masterpiece of the Pallava art.

• The last stage of Pallava art is represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple, and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture. The Pallavas also contributed to the development of sculpture. Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of this period.

• The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone. The minute details, as well as the theme of these sculptures, such as the figures of the lice-picking monkey, huge elephants, and the figure of the ‘ascetic cat’ standing erect, remain proof of the talent of the sculptor.

Architecture

• The achievements of the Pallavas in the field of architecture are very important. It was the period of the origin of Dravidian architecture. Several kinds of religious buildings were constructed. Generally, they are classified into cave temples and structural temples. Cave temples can be classified into Mahendra style and Narasimha style. Likewise, the structural temples can be classified into Rajasimha Style and Nandivarman style or Aparajuta style.

Mahendra Style

• Mahendravarman I was the originator of Pallava architecture. He was curious-minded and followed the style of cave temples at Vihayawada Sithaput and Undavallu.

• Cave temples were created by Mahendravarman at Trichirapalli, Mahendravarvadi, Mamandur, and Mantagapattu. These temples had many pillared halls. The pillars were slender, tall, and round in shape, and were not well decorated.

• The first cave temple was constructed at Mantagapattu. The temple consisted of separate garbagiraha for Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva.

• The Tiruchirappalli cave temple is known for its fresco in stone. It is two square meters in size. In the middle of the sculpture, there is an image of Gangatharar or Siva. The figure of Siva is standing on the body of the Mugalakan.

Narasimha Style

• Unlike his father, Narasimhavarman constructed many temples out of rocks and stones. The temples constructed by him can be classified into: Cave temples, Mandapas, Monolithic shrines or Single stone temples.

• Cave temples are Mandapas. All these buildings are found in Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram. The city itself was named after Narasimhavarman or Mamalla.

• The pillars of Narasimha style are more decorative and square or octagonal in shape.

• Mandapas: Several Mandapas were created by Narasimha. Some of these are: Tirumurthi Mandapa (dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva), Kottikal Mandapa (dedicated to Kottravai), Mahidassura Mandapa (dedicated to Thirumal), Varaha Mandapa (dedicated to Baraha).

• Monolithic Shrines: Made out of single rocks, also known as rathas and pagodas. There were 8 such pagodas, with 7 recognized pagodas. These are: Panchapandava ratha, Ganesha ratha, Pindari ratha, Vialam Kuttai ratha. The Panchapandava rathas are situated in a row and are dedicated to Dharmaraja, Bhima, Arjuna, Sahadeva, and Draupati. The other rathas are situated on the opposite side.

• The Dharamaraja rathas are the most complete ones, with several stories. The Gopuram had its origin from the rathas.

Sculptural Panels

• Narasimha also gave importance to the development of sculptures. These sculptures were carved in rocks and hills at Mahabalipuram.

• The important sculptures include Arjuna Penance or Descent of the Ganges and Bahirratha Penance.

Rajasimha Style

• Structural temples were introduced in place of cave temples during the reign of Narasimhavarman I or Rajasimha. Huge rocks and stones were piled up to construct these structural temples. The first structural temple was constructed by Parameswara I, the father of Narasimhavarman II, at Kurram.

• During the reign of Narasimhavarman II, there was peace and order, leading to the construction of many temples. Some important examples include the Kailasanatha temple and Vaigunta Perumal Temple at Kanchi, and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram.

• The Kailasanatha temple is the most decorative, with a tower and a pillared hall. It is well-proportioned and substantial. The Vaigunta Perumal Temple is slightly lower than the Kailasanatha temple. Its sanctum is square, with a portico, and the Vimana rises to a height of 60 feet, with four stories.

Nandivarman Style or Aparajutha Style

• The Mukteswara and Mukungeswara temples at Kanchi, the Virathaneswara temple at Tirutani, the Vadamalliswara temple at Orgadam, and the Parameswara temple at Gudimallum belong to this period of the Pallavas when their power was waning. These temples were mere copies of earlier temples, but they were constructed bigger than those of the Rajasimha style.

Fine Arts

• Music, dance, and painting developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music. The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments. The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.

• Dance and drama also developed during this period. The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures. The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.

• The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli. The various poses of the Nataraja at Kailasanatha temple speak about their taste for dance. Dancing Girls were appointed in the temples. There were 24 dancing girls in the Muktesvara temple.

• Mattavilasaprakasana is a drama written by Mahendravarman in Sanskrit. Perunkathai speaks about dramas.

• Mahendravarman was an excellent painter, as depicted through his title ‘Chitrakarapuli.’ He was the author of a treatise on painting, as proved by an inscription found at Mamandur. Traces of paintings on the roof of Sittanavasal and on the walls of Kailasanatha temple prove the Pallavas' taste in painting.

Conclusion

• The Pallavas were absolute monarchs who prided themselves on being ‘dharmamaharajas’, righteous great kings. Their administration resembled contemporary kingdoms: the lowest level of administration being the Sabha at the village level, provinces administered by governors called ‘Vyapritas’, and the king assisted by a council of ministers appointed by him.

• While the Pallavas’ reign can be considered a brief interlude in the history of South India with limited and indirect consequences in broader Indian history, they left behind a remarkable legacy of architecture that still stands today. It is not just the victorious battles and conquests that matter in the long term, but the culture and beauty left behind that transform into monuments of dynastic achievement.

Summary

• Pallavas ruled northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh between the 2nd and 9th centuries CE.

• The Pallavas gained prominence after the decline of the Satavahana dynasty, whom they served as feudatories. Numerous legends surround the origin of the Pallavas.

• The Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various times. There was a contest for political supremacy between the early Pallavas and the Kadambas.

• A long struggle existed between the Pallavas and Chalukyas of Badami for supremacy in peninsular India, with both vying for control over the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab.

• The conflict between the Pallavas and Chalukyas resumed in the first half of the 8th century with multiple setbacks for the Pallavas. The Chalukyas completely overran them in 740 CE, ending Pallava supremacy in South India.

• The royal custom of using descriptive honorific titles, birudas, was prevalent among the Pallavas. Mahendravarman I’s birudas were in Sanskrit, Tamil, and Telugu.

• Early Pallava royal inscriptions were in Prakrit or Sanskrit, the official languages of the dynasty, while the official script was Pallava grantha. Inscriptions in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka were in Prakrit, not Telugu or Kannada.

• Pallava power was well-established when Sivaskanda-varman was styled as “supreme king of great kings,” a title implying paramount authority, supported by the horse-sacrifice indicating his appreciation of his power.

• The Pallava king was assisted by ministers and privy councillors, with his throne surrounded by royal princes.

• Extensive direct contacts were maintained through maritime commerce at Mamallapuram, where Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I built the Shore Temple of the Seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram.

• The Pallavas were followers of Hinduism and made land gifts to gods and Brahmins. Some rulers performed the Aswamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.

• The Chinese monk Xuanzang, who visited Kanchipuram during Narasimhavarman I’s reign, reported 100 Buddhist monasteries and 80 temples in Kanchipuram.

• Mahendravarman I was initially a patron of Jainism but converted to Hinduism under the influence of the Saiva saint Appar with the revival of Hinduism during the Bhakti movement in South India.

• The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, built by Narasimhavarman II, is an important example of the Pallavas’ role in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples.

• The earliest Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples from 610-690 CE and structural temples from 690-900 CE. Numerous rock-cut cave temples bear the inscription of Mahendravarman I and his successors.

• The greatest accomplishments of Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram, which include excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines, known as rathas.