The term 'Rashtrakuta' translates to "chief of Rashtra", signifying a leader of a division or kingdom. Historical evidence suggests that the Rashtrakutas might have been provincial officers, as the title is found in inscriptions across various dynasties.
The Rashtrakutas were likely high-ranking officials, serving as provincial chiefs or administrators. For instance, the Naravana plates of Chalukya Vikramaditya II of Badami mention a Rashtrakuta Govindaraja, son of Shivaraja, acting as a vijnapati (petitioner).
Historian Romila Thapar posits that Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, was once a subordinate and a high official under the Chalukyas.
The origins of the Rashtrakutas remain debated. Many of their inscriptions assert descent from the Satyaki branch of the Yaduvamsha and the lineage of Tungas.
Historian Nilakantha Shastri argues for a Kannada origin based on inscriptions indicating that Kannada was their mother tongue, despite the significant use of Sanskrit.
Their common title, Lattalura-puravareshvara ("the eminent lord of the city of Lattalura"), was used by Rashtrakuta rulers from both main and secondary branches. Lattalura is identified as Latur in the Bidar district of Karnataka, confirming their Deccan origin.
Their homeland included regions occupied by Telugu and Kannada speakers, as well as parts of Maharashtra.
The Rashtrakuta dynasty is noted for its legacy of brave rulers and skilled administrators, which enabled the expansion of their empire. They engaged in constant battles with various kingdoms, including:
The decline of the Pallavas and the rising power of the Cholas provided opportunities for Rashtrakuta victories and territorial expansion.
Historian Romila Thapar emphasizes the Rashtrakutas' geographical advantage. Their central location in the Indian subcontinent facilitated alliances and conflicts with northern and southern rulers. This enabled their extensive territorial expansion.
Furthermore, historian Karashima argues that the fertile agricultural environment within Rashtrakuta territories supported their growth. Additionally, controlling vast stretches of the western seaboard allowed them to engage in trade with West Asia, particularly the Arabs, enriching their empire and funding their political ambitions.
The Rashtrakutas ruled in various parts of India during the early medieval period. The earliest ruling family was founded by Mananka in Malkhed, known for its Palidhvaja banner and Garuda-lanchhana. Another branch ruled in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. The Antroli-Chharoli inscription of 757 CE mentions four generations of Rashtrakutas: Karka I, Dhruva, Govinda, and Karka II, who governed the Lata country in Gujarat.
Dantidurga, the founder of the imperial Rashtrakuta line, established his capital at Manyakheta (Malkhed) near modern Sholapur. He was possibly a contemporary of Karka II. The Ellora inscription of 742 CE mentions his titles such as Prithivivallabha and Khagavaloka ("he whose glances are as keen as the edge of a sword"). He expanded his control over the territories of Lata and Malava after the Arab invasions. He also captured Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas, forming an alliance with Nandivarman Pallavamalla by marrying his daughter Reva.
The imperial Rashtrakuta line with their titles is presented as follows:
Following the death of Dantidurga without an heir, his uncle Krishnaraja I seized the throne in 756 CE. He earned titles like Shubhatunga ("high in prosperity") and Akalavarsha ("constant rainer"). His inscriptions, such as the Bhandak plates of 772 CE, confirm his dominance over Madhya Pradesh. His campaigns led to the defeat of Rahappa, earning him the Palidhvaja banner and the imperial title Rajadhiraja Parameshvara.
He expanded the Rashtrakuta Empire over modern Maharashtra, large parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, asserting authority over the Ganga Kingdom and compelling the Vengi Chalukyas to submit.
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After the death of Krishnaraja I between 772 CE and 775 CE, his son Govinda II succeeded him. Govinda II held titles like Prabhutavarsha (profuse rainer) and Vikramavaloka (the man with a heroic look) as per the Alas plates.
However, his rule was marked by conflict, as he faced opposition from his younger brother Dhruva, who governed the regions of Nasik and Khandesh. A civil war ensued, leading to the downfall of Govinda II.
After securing victory, Dhruva assumed sovereignty and took on grand titles:
He severely punished the rulers who supported Govinda II during the civil war. Before his death, Dhruva appointed his younger son Govinda III as his successor.
Govinda III emerged as one of the greatest rulers of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, bearing titles such as:
He successfully quelled rebellions in the south and conducted an expedition to the north, annexing territories like Malwa, Kosala, Kalinga, Vengi, Dahala, and Odraka. His victories in the south, particularly against the rulers of Kerala, Pandya, and Chola, further consolidated his authority.
The next ruler, Amoghavarsha I, also known as Maharaja Sarva, was the son of Govinda III. His reign of 68 years is noted for his preference for religious, literary, and architectural pursuits over warfare. He held the following titles:
Amoghavarsha I was a devout follower of Jainism and closely associated with Jain monks like Jinasena, the author of the Adipurana. While supporting Jainism, he also promoted the Brahmanical religion and performed rituals for the well-being of his people.
He is celebrated for constructing the capital city of Manyakheta and was a noted patron of literature and arts, leaving a lasting cultural legacy.
There were many rebellions in the vast Rashtrakuta Empire under his long reign. After his death, his son Krishna II ascended the throne in about 879 CE. Krishna II, who held the titles Akalavarsha and Shubhatunga, faced significant challenges in curbing rebellions. His notable achievement was the termination of the Lata viceroyalty. However, his campaigns against Vengi and the Cholas resulted in defeat, disgrace, and temporary exile.
Amoghavarsha I’s grandson, Indra III, restored the Rashtrakuta Empire. His army advanced through Lata and Malawa up to Kalpi and Kanauj, leading to the dethronement of Mahipala. His significant military achievements marked him as a powerful ruler. The sack of Kanauj in 915 CE cemented his dominance.
According to Al-Masudi, who visited India at that time, the Rashtrakuta king Balhara or Vallabharaja was the most prominent king in India, commanding the respect of many rulers.
Govinda IV faced significant opposition from the feudatories due to his controversial rule and rise to the throne. The united feudatories rebelled, leading to his defeat and removal. His brother, Amoghavarsha III, took the throne in 934-35 CE to restore the family's reputation.
Krishna III took the throne in 939 CE with the imperial title Akalavarsha. He waged battles against the Paramaras of Malava and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Notably, in 949 CE, he defeated the Chola king Parantaka I, annexing the northern part of the Chola Empire.
He marched down to Rameshwaram, erected a pillar of victory, and built a temple, solidifying his military prowess.
Following Krishna III’s death in late 966 CE or early 967 CE, his successor and half-brother Khottiga faced a united opposition. In 972 CE, the capital Manyakheta was plundered and destroyed by the Paramaras. After Khottiga’s downfall, Karka II briefly ruled but was overthrown by Tailla II of the Chalukya dynasty, marking the end of the Rashtrakuta Empire.
The warrior kings of the Rashtrakuta Empire established a vast dominion in South India, extending into northern territories, comprising approximately seven and a half lakh villages. They maintained a powerful monarchy supported by numerous feudatories. Over time, their governance became increasingly feudal in nature. The administration of the empire drew inspiration from the Gupta Empire, Harsha's Kingdom in the north, and the Chalukyas of the Deccan.
The king was the central authority, acting as the head of administration and the commander-in-chief. He was responsible for maintaining law and order, expecting unwavering loyalty from his ministers, feudatories, and officials. Though succession was generally hereditary, it was not strictly regulated, leading to frequent conflicts among heirs. Notably, Dhruva and Govinda IV deposed their elder brothers to seize the throne.
The directly administered territories were divided into:
Officials known as Rashtramahattaras and Vishayamahattaras assisted the governors in administrative matters, focusing on land revenue collection and law enforcement. Payment for officials often came in the form of rent-free land grants.
The Rashtrakuta Empire relied heavily on feudatories for military support and governance. Feudatories, including the Ganga Kingdom chiefs, played a vital role in the empire's expansion. In recognition of their loyalty and bravery, they received substantial land grants, achieving significant autonomy.
Notable feudatories such as Taila and Ganga Butugga ruled vast territories, including:
Feudatories were generally autonomous in internal affairs but owed loyalty, tribute, and military support to the king. On special occasions, they attended the royal court, and sometimes their daughters were married to the royal family.
The Rashtrakutas maintained a formidable military comprising infantry, cavalry, and war elephants. According to Arab chronicles, the army was renowned for its large number of horses imported from Arabia, West Asia, and Central Asia. Special troops commanded the fortified garrisons, while regular soldiers served under hereditary military service. War chariots had fallen out of use by this period.
The village was the smallest administrative unit, overseen by a hereditary village headman and an accountant. Both were often compensated with rent-free land grants. A village elder, known as the grama-mahajana or grama-mahattara, also assisted in administrative duties.
In Karnataka, village committees managed local schools, water tanks, temples, and roads, receiving a share of the revenue for their efforts. Similarly, towns had administrative bodies with representation from trade guilds. City law enforcement was under the jurisdiction of the koshta-pala or kotwal.
Despite centralized authority, hereditary elements and local powers gradually weakened the king’s control. This growing feudalism marked a distinctive characteristic of the Rashtrakuta administrative system.