Uncover the historical significance of the Sangam Age, its impact on Tamil literature, and the governance, trade, and culture of the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas in ancient South India.

Sangam Literature History and Overview

Sangam literature refers to early Tamil literary works passed down as oral tradition, dating back to the early centuries of the Common Era. The term Sangam (meaning academy) first appeared in medieval texts, referring to Tamil works compiled in an academy. According to Nakkiranar, who wrote a commentary on Iraiyanar Akaporul in the 8th century CE, there were three Sangams, all patronized by Pandya rulers.

• First Sangam

  Held at Ten Madurai (South Madurai), it lasted 4440 years with 4449 poets, including Lord Shiva, Lord Muruga, Lord Kubera, and Sage Agasthya. It was later engulfed by the sea.

• Second Sangam

  Conducted at Kapatapuram, it lasted 3700 years with 3700 poets. Like the First Sangam, it was submerged by the sea, and its works were lost.

• Third Sangam

  Lasting 1830 years, it was patronized by 49 Pandya kings. Surviving works include:

  • Tolkappiyam - Tamil grammatical treatise.
  • Ettu Tokai - Eight anthologies: Natrinai, Kuruntokai, Iinkurunuru, Patitruppathu, Paripadal, Kalittokai, Akananuru, and Purananuru.
  • Pattu Pattu - Ten long poems, including Tirumurugaatruppadai, Porunaratruppadai, Sirupaanaatruppadai, Perumppaanaatruppadai, Mullaipattu, Maduraikanchi, Nedunalvaadai, Kurinjipaatu, Pattinapalai, and Malaipadukadam.

Themes and Classification of Sangam Literature

Sangam literature is classified into two main genres:

• Akam Poems

  These poems describe inner life, focusing on love and marriage through five landscapes called tinai:

  • Kurinji - Mountainous, representing the union of lovers.
  • Mullai - Pastoral, symbolizing waiting for a lover.
  • Marutam - Riverine, indicating infidelity.
  • Neytal - Coastal, representing anxiety and separation.
  • Palai - Arid, depicting hardship and separation.

• Puram Poems

  Puram poems focus on external life, including warfare, morality, and societal values. Each stage of warfare is represented by a tinai with symbolic flowers:

  • Vetchi Tinai - Beginning of war through cattle raiding.
  • Vanchi Tinai - War preparation.
  • Uzhinai Tinai - Siege warfare.
  • Tumpai Tinai - Battle conflict.
  • Vakai Tinai - Victory celebration.

  These poems name kings, chieftains, and battlefields, and some reflect on life's impermanence.

Significance and Legacy of Sangam Literature

Sangam poems are valued for their authentic portrayal of emotions and historical events. Despite possible exaggerations, they provide critical insights into ancient Tamil society. The composition of poems began around the 3rd century BCE, with codification completed by the 8th century CE.

Tamil Historical Tradition and Collective Memory

The Indian society is renowned for its historical heritage, and the Tamil region is no exception. The Tamils have preserved their stories for centuries, maintaining a rich heritage. Often, a hoary past is attributed to ancient events based solely on literary evidence. Historical and archaeological investigations provide an extended antiquity to Tamil culture.

Sangam literature, with its diverse themes, serves as evidence of historical collective memory. The collective memory finds expression in poems that reflect historical traditions for contemporary audiences. However, this memory is selective, highlighting only the events the society deems significant for posterity.

• Historical Elements in Sangam Literature

  Both genres of Sangam literature, Akam and Puram, contain historical information. Tolkappiyam, an ancient Tamil grammatical work, references earlier texts 240 times without naming them, suggesting a preexisting literary tradition before formal grammar codification.



• Sangam Poems as Historical Records

  Sangam poems, although often described as bardic praise of kings or love poetry, inadvertently document historical events. These records offer glimpses into both past events and contemporary cultural narratives. Historical consciousness in Sangam literature is divided into two components:

  • Description of the Past - Genealogy of kings, invasions, Vedic sacrifices, and mythical ancestry.
  • Contemporary Historical Narratives - Insights from bards, minstrels, and poets on societal developments and events.

  In Puram songs, historical events are presented directly, while in Akam songs, they are conveyed indirectly through poetic expression.

Historical Heritage of Tamil Region and Collective Memory

The Indian society is renowned for its historical heritage, and the Tamil region is no exception. For centuries, the Tamils have preserved stories of their heritage and history. This practice of attributing a hoary past to ancient events, often based solely on literary evidence, continues today. Historical and archaeological investigations have extended the antiquity of Tamil culture.

• Collective Memory in Sangam Literature

  Sangam literature, with its varied themes, reflects strong evidence of historical collective memory. These poems preserve elements of the past for contemporary society, emphasizing events the society deemed important for future remembrance. However, the memory is selective, offering only glimpses of the broader historical context.

  Both historical antecedents and contemporary narratives can be found in Sangam literature. The ancient Tamil grammar text, Tolkappiyam, references previous works 240 times without naming them, indicating a well-established literary tradition preceding the codification of grammar rules.

• Historical Narratives in Sangam Literature

  Sangam poems are often regarded as the outpourings of bards who praised the worldly activities of kings (Puram) or explored love situations (Akam). However, they also unintentionally documented historical events and cultural narratives from both the past and their contemporary times.

  • Components of Historical Consciousness

    The historical consciousness in Sangam literature is divided into two key components:

    • Description of the Historical Past: Genealogy of kings, references to invasions, Vedic sacrifices, and mythical ancestry.
    • Contemporary Historical Narratives: Developments and events as observed by bards, minstrels, and poets.

    While Puram songs often directly address historical events, Akam songs embed them indirectly within poetic narratives.

• Description of the Past in Sangam Literature

  Sangam poems intricately weave historical details into their narratives, particularly when describing love or war situations. These poetic references encompass genealogies, mythical traditions, and even influences from other regions.

  • Genealogy of the Kings

    The genealogy of kings, particularly the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas, is frequently highlighted in Sangam literature. One prominent example is the anthology Patitrupathu, which describes the Chera history across ten divisions of poems, though the first and last divisions are missing. Each segment offers insights into the reigns of various Chera kings.

    • Imayavaramban Neducheralathan

      Described in the second division, Imayavaramban Neducheralathan was the son of Utiyan Cheralathan and Venmal Nallini. His emblem of the bow was said to be affixed on the Himalayas as a mark of victory. Poet Kumattur Kannanar, who celebrated his conquests, was rewarded with 500 villages and a share of the king's income.

    • Palyanai Selkezhukuttuvan

      The third division praises Palyanai Selkezhukuttuvan, brother of Imayavaramban. Poet Palai Kauthamanar received generous gifts after completing ten Vedic sacrifices to ascend to heaven with his wife.

    • Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral

      In the fourth division, Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral defeated King Nannan at the Battle of Vaakai Parantalai. Poet Kappiyatru Kappiyanar received forty hundred gold coins and a part of the kingdom as a reward.

    • Kadal Pirakottiya Senkuttuvan

      Described in the fifth division, Kadal Pirakottiya Senkuttuvan, son of Imayavaramban and a Chola princess, defeated numerous kings across the region. Poet Paranar received the revenue from Umbarkadu for his praises.

• Historical Authenticity and Exaggeration

  While Patitrupathu provides valuable historical insights, poetic exaggeration is evident. Poets often praised kings in pursuit of royal favor, leading to embellished accounts. Additionally, references to Brahmanas, Brahmadeyas, and Vedic sacrifices suggest northern cultural influences. The later-added epilogues or patikams further blend past and contemporary history, reshaping memories for successive generations.

Conduct of Vedic Rituals

The Tamil literature mentions the Vedic sacrifices that emerged due to contact with northern India and the migration of the Brahmanas to South India. The Chera king Palyanai Selkelukuttuvan is described as conducting Vedic sacrifices with smoke touching the sky (Patitrupathu 3:21). Similarly, the Pandya king Palyanai Yaga Salai Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi and the Chola king Rajasuyam Vetta Perunarkilli emphasized Vedic rituals, possibly influenced by northern ideologies and to legitimize their rule.

• Vedic Sacrifices in Tamil Literature

  Poems like Maduraikanchi and Akananuru document the significance of Vedic rituals. In Maduraikanchi, king Neducheliyan was advised to conduct sacrifices like his ancestor Palsalai Mudukudumi (759-760). An Akananuru poem (13) mentions a sacrifice by the chieftain Panni of the Kodai region. Additionally, Purananuru (6, 9, 15, 361) highlights the Brahmanas performing Vedic sacrifices.

• Recording the Regions Outside Tamil Region

  Sangam literature sporadically references rulers and regions beyond the Tamil country, revealing the poets’ awareness of distant kingdoms. Through oral tradition, these memories were preserved and restored in their poems.

  • Geographical Awareness in Sangam Literature

    Purananuru 3 describes the extent of the Pandya king Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi's domain, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to Kumari in the south, and bounded by the seas on the west and east.

    References to the River Ganga are found in Pattinapalai (190), Perumpaanatruppadai (429-433), and Natrinai (7), describing the river as descending from heaven and entering the sea. Similarly, the Himalayas are mentioned in various poems, like Purananuru 132, which contrasts the northern mountains with the southern Ays kingdom, symbolizing world balance.

  • Sources of Information

    The geographical descriptions in Sangam poetry suggest that Tamil poets may have acquired knowledge of distant regions through traders, travelers, or pilgrims. Their observations and stories were immortalized in poetic form.

• The Northern Kings

  Sangam literature not only covers the Tamil rulers like the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas but also refers to northern rulers. Inscriptions of Asoka also mention these Tamil kingdoms as southern neighbors, indicating established trade and diplomatic relations.

  • Tribes and Chieftains in the North

    Tribes like the Aruvars, Oliyar, and Vatakar, who ruled northern Tamil regions in present-day Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, are highlighted in Sangam literature. Poems describe the conflicts between Tamil kings and northern chieftains who spoke non-Tamil languages.

  • Wealth of Northern Kings

    The immense wealth of northern rulers like the Nandas is mentioned in Akananuru poems (251, 265). Pataliputra, the capital of the Nandas, is described as a city where they hid treasures beneath the River Ganges.

  • The Mauryas in Sangam Literature

    References to the Mauryas are also found in Sangam poetry. Akananuru (69) mentions the Mauryan chariots with iron wheels blunting rocky surfaces, symbolizing their military dominance. It also describes their assistance to the Kosars against the King of Mokur (251).

    Additionally, Purananuru (175) praises the grandeur of Mauryan chariots adorned with white parasols and flags, while Akananuru (281) recounts their invasion into southern regions with the Vatukars leading the attack.

• The Seven Benevolent Chieftains

  Sangam literature celebrates seven chieftains — Pari, Kari, Ori, Pegan, Ay, Athiyaman, and Nalli — for their generosity. These rulers were renowned for their benevolence towards poets and bards, often giving away wealth and resources (Purananuru 158, Sirupaanatruppadai 84-115).

  • Poetess Auvaiyar and Athiyaman

    The poetess Auvaiyar celebrated the valor and generosity of Athiyaman of Tagadur. According to Purananuru (99), his ancestors introduced sugarcane cultivation to Tamil Nadu, a belief also echoed by William Logan in the Malabar Manual.

  • Ancestral and Mythological Lineages

    Sangam literature often links chieftains to both historical and mythological ancestry. For instance, the hero of Perumpaanatruppadai is depicted as a descendant of Tondaiman and ultimately Lord Vishnu. This practice of glorifying rulers' lineages through divine ancestry continued in the medieval period, as seen in Pallava inscriptions.

Battlefields

The literature gives a vivid account of the battlefields and the horrors of wars. References to wars are found in both Akam and Puram songs. While Akam poems elaborate on the battlefield scenes and the hero's valor, Puram songs openly praise kings for their victories. Here, three significant battles are described to illustrate the depiction of warfare in classical Tamil poetry.

• Battle of Venni Parantalai

  The young Chola king Karikala defeated two kings and eleven chieftains in the Battle of Venni Parantalai. Akananuru 246 mentions the war drums abandoned in a corner as Karikala emerged victorious.

  Akananuru 55 describes the Chera king, injured in the back, committing suicide by facing the northern side — a symbolic act to avoid the shame of a back injury. Interestingly, Akananuru 66 contains a poetess's praise for the Chera king's honorable death, acknowledging his courage.

• Battle of Vagaiparantalai

  Another significant battle fought by Karikala was the Battle of Vagaiparantalai. He defeated nine rulers who abandoned their royal umbrellas and fled the battlefield (Akananuru 125).

  Porunaratruppadai compares Karikala’s triumph over the Chera and Pandya kings to a lion cub killing a giant elephant in its first attack (139-146). This battle likely followed the Battle of Venni, further consolidating Karikala's authority.

• Battle of Aalankanam

  The Battle of Aalankanam involved the Pandya king Seliyan fighting against seven rulers, including the Chera, Chola, and chieftains Tithiyan, Elini, Erumaiyuran, Irunkovenman, and Porunan.

  When informed of the invasion, Seliyan declared that if he failed to defeat his enemies and seize their parasols, his people would curse him as an evil king (Purananuru 72).

  Purananuru 79 describes a poet witnessing the battle, likening Seliyan’s entry into the battlefield to an elephant charging against numerous soldiers. The poet predicted a swift end to the battle with only a few survivors.

  Seliyan ultimately vanquished all his opponents in a single day and captured their white parasols (Purananuru 25, 76, Akananuru 36). A poet later described the victory as unprecedented and extraordinary (Purananuru 76).

Recording the Live Events

While many poems recount past events, some songs capture real-time happenings, as narrated by poets who directly observed them.

• Poet Condemns a Chola King

  In Purananuru 46, a poet criticizes a Chola king for planning to kill the two young sons of a defeated ruler by trampling them under elephants. The poet reminds the king of his noble lineage from Sibi, who sacrificed his own flesh to save a pigeon’s life. While praising the king’s ancestry, the poet appeals to his conscience, emphasizing the innocence of the children.

• Lament of Pari’s Daughters

  After the chieftain Pari was killed in battle, his daughters lamented their loss. In Purananuru 112, they grieve over how the previous full moon saw their father and his kingdom intact, but the current full moon only brings sorrow.

  The poet Kapilar, identifying himself as a Brahman, assumed responsibility for Pari’s daughters. He approached several chieftains through poetic pleas, seeking suitable matches for the girls (Purananuru 200-202).

• A Prayer for King Evvi

  In Purananuru 233, a poetess hears of King Evvi’s severe battle wound. She prays for the news to be false, unwilling to believe the tragic report.

Socio-Economic Conditions in the Sangam Period

Sangam literature offers valuable insights into the political, social, and economic landscape of the classical Tamil period. The poems detail various aspects of life, including landscapes, occupations, music, time, flora, fauna, and seasonal changes.

• Trade and Commerce

  Sangam poems highlight both internal and external trade, mentioning commercial exchanges with Rome and other foreign regions. Evidence of external trade is supported by foreign texts such as Periplus Maris Erythraei and Ptolemy’s writings.

  In the bustling port city of the Cheras, Muziris, pepper was piled high and exchanged for Roman gold brought by sea (Akananuru 149, Purananuru 343). This indicates a flourishing maritime trade network and a barter economy during the Sangam period.

• Occupations and Production

  The poems describe various professions, agricultural activities, and the production processes of the time. Barter was a common form of exchange, with goods like spices, textiles, and precious stones being traded both locally and internationally.

Sangam Poets and Compositions

The Sangam poets and their compositions cannot be assessed using modern standards of historical consciousness. These classical poems were composed in different contexts, times, and locations and were later codified and redacted during the medieval period.

The term "Sangam" was initially used by Vajranandi for a Jaina sangha. It was only in the eighth century CE that Iraiyanar Akapporul, attributed to Lord Siva, claimed the works were codified into their current form. The scattered poems were collected, codified, and annotated with colophons by several individuals before Perutevanar compiled them, adding invocatory verses to some collections. Oral traditions were eventually documented, and poems were classified based on their themes and styles.

Authenticating the Past: Historicity of Sangam Age

The historicity of the Sangam Age is validated by references in contemporary and later works. Various inscriptions and texts confirm the existence of rulers and events mentioned in the Sangam literature.

• References in Indian Literature

  The Ramayana mentions the city of Kavata, known for its pearls and ruled by the Pandyas. Similarly, Kautilya’s Arthashastra refers to Pandya pearls.

  Additionally, the Ashokan rock edicts (XIII) mention the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and Satyaputras as southern neighbors. The Satyaputras are identified with the Athiyaman dynasty of the Tagadur region (modern Dharmapuri, Tamil Nadu), as corroborated by the Tamil Brahmi inscription at Jambai.

  This 1st-century CE inscription reads, "Satiyaputho Adhiya Nedumananji eetha paali," referring to a Jain stone bed donation by Athiyaman Neduman Anji, further authenticating Sangam literature.

• Hathigumpha Inscription

  The Hathigumpha inscription by King Kharavela describes his victory over the Dramira confederacy, which lasted for 113 years. It also mentions the Pandya king paying tribute to Kharavela with pearls, gems, horses, and elephants.

• Pugalur Inscription

  The Pugalur inscription in Tamil Brahmi, dated to the 2nd century CE, mentions three Chera kings — Ko Aadhan Sellirumporai, his son Perunkadunko, and his grandson Ilankadunko. These rulers, who donated a Jain bed, are also recorded in the Sangam text Patitrupathu.

• Velvikudi Copper Plates

  The Velvikudi copper plates of King Neduncadayan (9th century CE) record a land grant to a Brahmana named Narkorran by his ancestor Palyaga Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi, a Pandya king of the Sangam Age. The grant was annulled by the Kalabhras but reinstated by Nedunjadayan in his third regnal year, further supporting the historical authenticity of Sangam literature.

Oral Transmission and Commentaries

According to the commentary by Nakkiran on Iraiyanar Akapporul, the Sangam songs were orally transmitted for ten generations until the time of Nilakantan of Muciri, dated to the 8th century CE.

Epigraphic evidence also supports the existence of Sangam academies. The Erukkankuti inscription (829 CE) mentions a Sangam academy bench where Tamil literary works were evaluated. Similarly, the Cinnamanur and Talavaypuram inscriptions (10th and 11th centuries CE) reference the Sangam academy at Madurai, which was patronized by the Pandya kings.

Foreign Sources for Sangam Age

The Sangam Age was marked by flourishing economic ties with the Roman world. Sangam poems refer to Yavana ships bringing gold and taking pepper from Tamil coastal regions (Akananuru 149). Archaeological findings further confirm this trade relationship.

• Pepper Trade in Berenice

  The discovery of Tamil pepper in Berenice, Egypt aligns with Sangam references to the pepper trade. A Tamil Brahmi inscription on a potsherd, bearing the name Kotrapooman, also indicates the participation of Tamil merchants in the Indo-Roman trade network.

• Quseir al-Qadhim Inscriptions

  At the port site of Quseir al-Qadhim (identified with Myos Hormos by the Romans), Tamil Brahmi inscriptions mentioning the names Saathan and Kanan were discovered, further substantiating the literary accounts of Tamil maritime trade.

• Greco-Roman Literature

  Greco-Roman texts like Strabo’s Geography, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Pliny’s Natural History, Ptolemy’s Geography, and the Peutinger Table also reference Tamil coastal towns.

  Examples include:

  • Veerai Munthurai (Arikamedu-Virampattinam) mentioned as Poduke.
  • The Pandya port city Korkai identified as Colchi or Kolkhai.
  • The Chola capital Uraiyur referred to as Argaru.

Conclusion

The Sangam poems, passed down by bards and poets, provide a glimpse into the past, blending history with oral tradition. While medieval poets added commentaries and colophons, the core historical references within the texts remain valuable. From the second or first century BCE to the 19th century CE, the preservation and codification of Sangam literature by scholars like U.V. Swaminatha Iyer ensure its legacy as an invaluable historical record of Tamil culture.

Legacy Behind the Historical Traditions

The historical consciousness of Tamil poets is reflected in their poems, preserving past events in collective memory. The tracing of one’s past and maintaining legacy in both individual and social memory play a significant role in shaping historical consciousness.

There was a continuous interplay between past memories and their present usage for legitimacy. However, it is also essential to question:

• Why were certain aspects of the past preserved while others were excluded?
• Who decided which events were to be remembered or forgotten?
• Why were only specific aspects of history passed down through generations?
• What motivated the Sangam poets to narrate particular past events?
• Were these poems emotional outpourings to please chieftains?
• Why were mythical stories interwoven with historical accounts?

Role of Power and Resources

The answers lie in the power and resources that individuals or groups had at their disposal. Historical consciousness or collective memory often granted identity and legitimacy to the powerful. Through time, these memories became embedded in narratives and were adopted into contemporary and later historical traditions.

The myths and historical memories of a society were likely employed by Sangam poets to serve the needs of their patrons. These patrons, seeking validation and authority, used historical traditions to justify their rule. Consequently, historical narratives within Sangam literature not only highlighted the past but also established a glorified version of Tamil history.

Early Historic Tamilakam: Major Powers

The Early Historic period of Tamilakam (c. 2nd century BCE - 3rd century CE) saw the dominance of three major powers, referred to as Muventar — the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Each of these dynasties held significant influence over different regions of Tamilakam.

• Chera Dynasty

  The Cheras ruled from approximately the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. Their major centers of power were located at:

  • Karur (Present-day Tamil Nadu)
  • Muziris (Present-day Kerala)
  • Thondi (Present-day Kerala)

• Chola Dynasty

  The Cholas ruled Tamil Nadu during both the pre and post Sangam periods, from around 600 BCE to 300 CE. Their early capitals were:

  • Urayur (also called Uraiyur, located in present-day Tiruchirapalli)
  • Kaveripattinam (an important port city)

  The Ashokan inscriptions (2nd and 13th rock edicts) make references to the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. Among the early Cholas, Karikala Chola was one of the most prominent rulers, frequently mentioned in Sangam poetic compositions.

• Pandya Dynasty

  The early capital of the Pandyas was Korkai (located in modern-day Thoothukudi). During the reign of Nedunjelian, the capital shifted to Koodal (Madurai).

  Sangam literary works such as Mathuraikkanchi and Shilapatikaram contain references to the early Pandyas. Their sphere of influence extended across:

  • Travancore in the west
  • Vellaru River in the north
  • The sea coast to the east and south

  The Pandyas and the maritime hub of Korkai are also mentioned in the accounts of Greek and Roman historians such as:

  • Pliny the Elder
  • Strabo
  • Ptolemy

  The region was notably known for its pearl fishery, a fact corroborated by these foreign accounts.