The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the Carnatic Wars, Causes for the English Success and the French Failure. Immediate Cause of Rebellion. Offensive and Support. Retreat and Further Conflict. Resolution and Aftermath. Role of Nur JahanEarly Life and Marriage. Family Influence and Political Rise. Role in Governance and Administration. Cultural Contributions and Legacy. Relationship with Jahangir and Shah JahanPolitical and Administrative Developments. Jahangir's Reign and Challenges. Nur Jahan's Influence and Succession Issues.

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  Though the British and the French came to India for trading purposes, they were ultimately drawn into the politics of India. Both had visions of establishing political power over the region. The Anglo-French rivalry in India reflected the traditional rivalry of England and France throughout their histories; it began with the outbreak of the Austrian War of Succession and ended with the conclusion of the Seven Years’ War. Specifically in India, the rivalry, in the form of three Carnatic wars, decided once for all that the English and not the French were to become masters of India.
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  In 1740, the political situation in south India was uncertain and confused. Nizam Asaf Jah of Hyderabad was old and fully engaged in battling the Marathas in the western Deccan while his subordinates were speculating upon the consequences of his death. To the south of his kingdom lay the Coromandel coast without any strong ruler to maintain a balance of power. Instead, there was the remnant of the old Vijayanagara empire in interior Mysore, Cochin and Travancore on the Malabar coast, and in the east the small states of Madura (Madurai), Tanjore (Thanjavur) and Trichinopoly (Thiruchirapally). The decline of Hyderabad was the signal for the end of Muslim expansionism and the English adventurers got their plans ready. Also, there was the Maratha kingdom of Tanjore, providing the Peshwa of Pune an excuse for interference whenever he pleased.

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  Background: Carnatic was the name given by the Europeans to the Coromandel coast and its hinterland. The First Carnatic War was an extension of the Anglo-French War in Europe which was caused by the Austrian War of Succession.
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  Immediate Cause: Although France, conscious of its relatively weaker position in India, did not favour an extension of hostilities to India, the English navy under Barnet seized some French ships to provoke France. France retaliated by seizing Madras in 1746 with the help of the fleet from Mauritius, the Isle of France, under Admiral La Bourdonnais, the French governor of Mauritius. Thus began the first Carnatic War.
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  Result: The First Carnatic War ended in 1748 when the Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle was signed bringing the Austrian War of Succession to a conclusion. Under the terms of this treaty, Madras was handed back to the English, and the French, in turn, got their territories in North America.
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  Significance: The First Carnatic War is remembered for the Battle of St. Thome (in Madras) fought between the French forces and the forces of Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic, to whom the English appealed for help. A small French army under Captain Paradise defeated the strong Indian army under Mahfuz Khan at St. Thome on the banks of the River Adyar. This was an eye-opener for the Europeans in India: it revealed that even a small disciplined army could easily defeat a much larger Indian army. Further, this war adequately brought out the importance of naval force in the Anglo-French conflict in the Deccan.

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  Background: The background for the Second Carnatic War was provided by rivalry in India. Dupleix, the French governor who had successfully led the French forces in the First Carnatic War, sought to increase his power and French political influence in southern India by interfering in local dynastic disputes to defeat the English.
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  Immediate Cause: The opportunity was provided by the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, the founder of the independent kingdom of Hyderabad, in 1748, and the release of Chanda Sahib, the son-in-law of Dost Ali, the Nawab of Carnatic, by the Marathas in the same year. The accession of Nasir Jang, the son of the Nizam, to the throne of Hyderabad was opposed by Muzaffar Jang, the grandson of the Nawab, who laid claim to the throne saying that the Mughal Emperor had appointed him as the governor of the Carnatic. In the Carnatic, the appointment of Anwar-ud-din Khan as the Nawab was resented by Chanda Sahib.
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  The French supported the claims of Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib in the Deccan and Carnatic, respectively, while the English sided with Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din.
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  Course of the War: The combined armies of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and the French defeated and killed Anwar-ud-din at the Battle of Ambur (near Vellore) in 1749. Muzaffar Jang became the subahdar of Deccan, and Dupleix was appointed governor of all the Mughal territories to the south of the River Krishna. A French army under Bussy was stationed at Hyderabad to secure French interests there. Territories near Pondicherry and also some areas on the Orissa coast (including Masulipatnam) were ceded to the French.
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  Having failed to provide effective assistance to Muhammad Ali at Trichinopoly, Robert Clive, then an agent (‘factor’) of the English company, put forward the proposal for a diversionary attack on the governor of Madras, Saunders. He suggested a sudden raid on Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, so as to relieve the pressure on Trichinopoly. He reasoned that in such an event Chanda Sahib would rush to save his capital. Thus, in August 1751, with only a force of 210 men Robert Clive attacked and captured Arcot. As expected, Chanda Sahib hastened to his capital, taking a force of 4,000 men from Trichinopoly, but failed to get back the fort even after a siege of 53 days, from September 23 to November 14. Now Mysore, Tanjore and the Maratha chief, Morari Rao, came to the aid of Trichinopoly, and of Clive and Stringer Lawrence. Trichinopoly was first relieved of its siege, while General Law of France with Chanda Sahib remained cooped up in the island of Srirangam. They were forced to surrender in June 1752 when Muhammad Ali executed Chanda Sahib, the British failing to interfere.

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  Background: Joseph Francis Dupleix, born in 1697, was the son of a wealthy Farmer-General of Taxes and Director-General of the Company of the Indies. He was appointed to a high post at Pondicherry in 1720, allegedly due to his father's influence. At Pondicherry, Dupleix amassed wealth through private trade, which was permitted to French company servants. In December 1726, he was suspended due to constitutional changes in the French company and subsequent confusions. By 1730, Dupleix won his case and was appointed governor of Chandernagore as compensation. In 1741, he was appointed Director-General of French colonies in India and later conferred the title of Nawab by the Mughal emperor and the subahdar of Deccan, Muzzaffar Jang.
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  Dupleix in the Role of Administrator: As Governor-General of Pondicherry in 1741, Dupleix faced several issues: Maratha invasions, famine, uncultivated land, and chaotic conditions in the Carnatic. The French East India Company Directors sought drastic expenditure cuts due to prioritizing French colonies in North America. Despite opposition, Dupleix reduced public expenditure, balanced income and expenditure, and cut salaries. However, he defied the Directors by enhancing the fortifications of Pondicherry with his personal wealth and transforming it into a commercial hub in South India. The Directors later praised his decisions, even when contrary to their directives.
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  Dupleix as a Master of Diplomacy: Dupleix displayed remarkable diplomatic skills in the Carnatic Wars. He initially used the Nawab of Carnatic to prevent English incursions, promising Madras post-English defeat. However, Dupleix did not honor this promise, defeating the Nawab at St. Thome in 1746. He also convinced Admiral La Bourdonnais to break promises made to the English, arguing that such promises were not binding under certain circumstances. Additionally, Dupleix was the first European to interfere in Indian internal politics, supporting Muzzaffar Jang for Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib for Carnatic, securing significant concessions in return. He is credited with originating the practice of subsidiary alliance in India by placing a French army at Hyderabad at the subahdar’s expense.
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  Why Dupleix Failed in India: Dupleix was recalled in 1754 due to the French army's initial defeat in the Second Carnatic War and the financial burdens incurred by his political decisions. Historians often view his recall as a blunder, resulting from a Franco-English compromise over American issues. However, Dupleix had several weaknesses:
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    He had an overly optimistic temperament, hoping for too long and losing advantage in critical situations.
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    His autocratic behavior led to conflicts with his peers, who were often at odds with him.
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    Dupleix was more of a planner than an action-oriented leader; he directed campaigns but did not lead in battle like Lawrence or Clive. His schemes failed to materialize effectively in the field, leading to failures such as the unsuccessful attempt to capture Trichinopoly (1752-53).

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  Decisive Battle: The decisive battle of the Third Carnatic War was won by the English on January 22, 1760 at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu. General Eyre Coote of the English totally routed the French army under Count Thomas Arthur de Lally and took Bussy as prisoner. Pondicherry was gallantly defended by Lally for eight months before he surrendered on January 16, 1761.
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  Aftermath: With the loss of Jinji and Mahe, the French power in India was reduced to its lowest. Lally, after being taken as a prisoner of war at London, returned to France where he was imprisoned and executed in 1766.
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  Result and Significance: The Third Carnatic War proved decisive. Although the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) restored to the French their factories in India, the French political influence disappeared after the war. Thereafter, the French, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts in India, confined themselves to their small enclaves and to commerce. The English became the supreme European power in the Indian subcontinent, since the Dutch had already been defeated in the Battle of Bidara in 1759. The Battle of Plassey, in 1757, is usually regarded by historians as the decisive event that brought about ultimate British rule over India. However, one cannot quite ignore the view that the true turning point for control of the subcontinent was the victory of British forces over the French forces at Wandiwash in 1760. The victory at Wandiwash left the English East India Company with no European rival in India.

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  Background: The Third Carnatic War was part of the larger conflict known as the Seven Years’ War (1756-63), which was fought between Britain and France on a global scale. The war in India was a continuation of the struggle for supremacy between the two European powers, with both sides seeking to expand their influence in the region.
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  Immediate Cause: The immediate cause of the Third Carnatic War was the renewed conflict between Britain and France, which spilled over into India. The war began with the British capture of Calcutta (Kolkata) and the French capture of Madras. The struggle for control over these strategic locations was a key factor in the escalation of the conflict.
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  Course of the War: The Third Carnatic War saw several major battles and sieges. The British, under the command of Robert Clive and the East India Company, achieved significant victories, including the decisive Battle of Plassey in 1757, which secured their dominance in Bengal. The French, led by Count de Lally, attempted to challenge British control but faced setbacks in their efforts. The war also saw the Siege of Pondicherry and the eventual capture of the French stronghold by the British.
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  Result: The war concluded with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which marked the end of the Seven Years' War. The treaty resulted in significant territorial changes, with the British gaining control of key French territories in India, including Madras, and establishing their dominance in the region. The French were forced to cede their claims to most of their territories in India, effectively ending their influence and marking the beginning of British supremacy in the subcontinent.

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  The Anglo-French struggle for supremacy in India, encapsulated in the Carnatic Wars, was a significant chapter in the broader context of colonial rivalry and competition. The wars not only determined the fate of British and French influence in India but also set the stage for the eventual establishment of British colonial rule. The outcome of these conflicts highlighted the importance of strategic alliances, military prowess, and political manoeuvring in shaping the course of history.
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  Ultimately, the British emerged as the dominant power in India, a position they would maintain for the next two centuries. The legacy of the Carnatic Wars continues to be a testament to the complex and dynamic nature of colonial interactions and the geopolitical landscape of 18th-century India.

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  Private vs. State-Controlled Enterprises: The English East India Company was a private enterprise, fostering enthusiasm and self-confidence among its personnel. With less governmental control, the company could make swift decisions without awaiting government approval. Conversely, the French East India Company was a state-controlled entity, subject to governmental policies and delays, which hampered its decision-making process.
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  Naval Superiority: The English navy was superior to the French navy, enabling it to sever the crucial sea link between French possessions in India and France.
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  Strategic Locations: The English controlled three key locations—Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras—while the French had only Pondicherry.
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  Commercial vs. Territorial Focus: The French prioritized territorial ambitions over commercial interests, leading to financial shortages. In contrast, the British maintained a balance between imperialistic goals and commercial interests, ensuring robust financial health to support their wars against rivals.
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  Commanders' Superiority: The success of the English was also attributed to the superior leadership of their commanders. While the English had notable leaders such as Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, and Robert Clive, the French side had only Dupleix.

About the Goods in Trade Initially

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  Textile Trade: European accounts from port towns like Surat describe the intricate processes involved in creating various fabrics collectively known as ‘Indian.’ Fabrics such as cotton longcloth, salempores, and morees were highly sought after. Painted cloths, prints, silks, and dyes were also in demand in Europe and Asia. Indian textiles were traded for centuries before Europeans arrived, with Indian cotton prized for its lightweight and strong qualities in places like China, Japan, and the Indonesian archipelago.
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  Trade in Textiles and Spices: European traders acquired Indian textiles not only for their home countries but also for trade in regions like Malacca and Java, where they were exchanged for spices. By the 18th century, the French successfully wove coloured patterned handkerchiefs for specific island markets.
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  Slave Trade: The trade in slaves, often associated with Europe, Africa, and the Americas, also involved trade between Europe and Asia. French ships transported European goods to Asia, obtaining cowry shells and Indian textiles valued in West Africa. These goods were exchanged for slaves, who were then sent to French colonies in the Americas. The cycle was completed with sugar and other goods from the Americas shipped back to France.
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  Complex Economic System: When the French East India Company entered India, it engaged with an already established and complex economic system. Indian merchants ran large commercial fleets and prosperous businesses. They collaborated with weavers, brokers, overland freight operators, and local state officials for commercial privileges. European traders had to navigate these established practices and effectively collaborate with indigenous agents.