Experience the life of Paleolithic Humans, the food they eat, the tools they used, how they lived etc.

Paleolithic Age: Phases, Characteristics, and Tools

Humans in India have lived since approximately 500,000 B.C., using unpolished stone tools for survival. Artifacts from the Paleolithic Age were found in South India and the Soan Valley in Pakistan. This phase continued until 8000 B.C., and people relied heavily on hunting and gathering for food.

• Paleolithic Period
  • Definition: An ancient cultural stage characterized by rudimentary chipped stone tools.
  • Timeframe: Traditionally linked to the first evidence of tool construction (approx. 2.58 million years ago).
  • Diet: The Paleo diet is inspired by the presumed dietary habits of Paleolithic humans.
  • Discovery:
    • Oldest stone tools date to 3.3 million years ago, found near Lake Turkana, Kenya.
    • Predates Homo species, suggesting Australopithecus or its contemporaries were toolmakers.

  

  • Divisions:
    • Lower Paleolithic
      • Oldowan Stage (2.6 million–1 million years ago) – pebble tools.
      • Acheulean Stage (1.7 million–200,000 years ago) – hand axes, cleaving tools.
      • Proposed Lomekwian Stage (3.3–2.6 million years ago) – early hammering tools.
    • Middle Paleolithic (250,000–30,000 years ago)
      • Flake tools.
      • Widespread use of fire.
    • Upper Paleolithic (50,000–10,000 years ago)
      • Advanced toolmaking, including bone, ivory, and antler tools.
      • Distinct regional artistic traditions.



• Toolmaking
  • Lower Paleolithic Tools
    • Pebble tools associated with early human ancestors.
    • Chopper chopping-tool industry attributed to *Homo erectus*.
  • Stone Tool Traditions
    • Hand Axes (700,000 years ago) – Found in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.
    • Flake Tools – Developed into Mousterian industry, associated with Neanderthals.
    • Beads – Found in Africa, possibly worn as ornaments.
  • Upper Paleolithic Tool Industries
    • Examples: Perigordian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian.
    • More complex and specialized tools.
• Art in the Paleolithic
  • Types
    • Small sculptures (Venus figurines, animal carvings).
    • Cave paintings (Chauvet–Pont d’Arc, Lascaux Grotto).
  • Purpose of Art
    • Possibly linked to hunting rituals or fertility magic.
    • Some scholars suggest it was an early attempt at a seasonal notation system.
  • Musical Instruments
    • Flutes made of bone and ivory, dating back 35,000 years.
• End of the Paleolithic
  • Coincided with the beginning of the Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago).
  • Transition:
    • Some cultures adapted to intensified food collection (Mesolithic Period).
    • Others began early agriculture and animal domestication (Neolithic Period).

Early Paleolithic Phase: Tools and Climate

• This phase occurred during the Ice Age and is marked by the use of hand-axes and cleavers.
• Hand-axes were discovered in deposits from the second Himalayan glaciation.
• The climate became less humid during this time.
• Hand-axes, Choppers, and Cleavers used in the Early Paleolithic phase.

Middle Paleolithic Phase: Flake Industries and Scrapers

• The Middle Paleolithic phase is defined by flake-based industries.
• Scrapers made of flakes were the primary tools of this period.
• Artifacts from this era have been found along the Narmada River and the Tungabhadra River.

Upper Paleolithic Phase: Blades, Burins, and Rock Shelters

• This phase coincided with the last stage of the Ice Age.
• Blades and burins were commonly used tools during this period.
• Rock shelters and caves were utilized by human beings in this phase.

Mesolithic Age: Transition to the Neolithic Era

The Mesolithic Age, also known as the Late Stone Age, was a transitional period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. In India, this phase started around 8000 B.C. and lasted until 4000 B.C.

Summary: Key Aspects of the Paleolithic Age

Aspect	Details
Title	Paleolithic Age and Its Phases
Paleolithic Age	The Old Stone Age Unpolished stone tools for hunting. Lasted until 8000 B.C.
Early Paleolithic Phase	Covered the Ice Age, marked by hand-axes and cleavers.
Middle Paleolithic Phase	Flake industries, with scrapers made from flakes.
Upper Paleolithic Phase	Use of blades, burins, and rock shelters.
Mesolithic Age	Transition phase between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages.

Detailed Study of Paleolithic Period

Prehistoric and Historic Periods: Divisions, Technological Stages, and Cultural Developments

• Division of Human History

  Human history is broadly divided into two significant periods: the Prehistoric Period and the Historic Period. The Prehistoric Period refers to the time before the invention of writing, while the Historic Period begins with the emergence of written records.

  Since there are no written records available from the prehistoric era, our knowledge relies entirely on materials discovered through archaeological excavations.

• Stone Age

  The Stone Age is the earliest phase of human development, characterized by the use of stone tools. This age is divided into three distinct periods:

  • Palaeolithic Period: Representing the hunting and gathering stage.
  • Mesolithic Period: Marked by continued hunting and gathering, with the gradual introduction of small-scale food production.
  • Neolithic Period: Defined by the beginning of plant cultivation and animal husbandry, representing the transition to a food-producing economy.

• Chalcolithic Age (Copper Age)

  Following the Stone Age, humans entered the Chalcolithic Age, also known as the Copper Age. This transitional phase witnessed the early use of copper metallurgy alongside stone tools. The Chalcolithic culture is characterized by the growth of early villages and the establishment of agro-pastoral economies.

  Some regions experienced significant technological and economic advancements during this period, leading to the rise of early urban settlements. In India, this development culminated in the flourishing of the Indus Valley Civilization along the Indus River.

• Iron Age

  The Iron Age followed the Chalcolithic Age, marking the widespread use of ferrous metallurgy. The adoption of iron tools and weapons brought significant advancements in agriculture, craftsmanship, and warfare.

  Iron Age societies also witnessed the rise of more complex social structures, religious beliefs, artistic expressions, and the establishment of political entities. This era is often associated with the beginning of the Historic Period.

Palaeolithic Age in India: Phases, Tools, and Archaeological Discoveries

• Introduction to Palaeolithic Age

  The Palaeolithic Age, also known as the Old Stone Age, spans from 2,500,000 B.C. to 10,000 B.C. during the Pleistocene Period of the Ice Age. The term was coined by archaeologist Sir John Lubbock in 1865 A.D. Derived from Greek words, Palaois meaning Old and Lithos meaning Stone, it marks a time when early humans relied primarily on stone tools.

  Despite its longevity, the period saw slow progress, notable for the evolution of humans on earth. Stone tools evolved over time, alongside the development of the human anatomy. Early humans were hunter-gatherers, living in natural caves or rock shelters and surviving on forest products. They had no knowledge of agriculture or house building.

• Phases of Palaeolithic Age in India

  • Lower Palaeolithic Age

    Covering the period from 250,000 B.C. to 100,000 B.C., the Lower Palaeolithic phase coincided with the greater part of the Ice Age. Tools from this era included hand-axes and cleavers.

  • Middle Palaeolithic Age

    The Middle Palaeolithic phase is characterized by the use of flake tools. There was a notable refinement in stone tool technology compared to the earlier phase.

  • Upper Palaeolithic Age

    The Upper Palaeolithic phase brought the introduction of flakes and blades, along with burins and scrapers. Humans showed improved tool-making skills, reflecting their adaptation to a changing environment.

• Archaeological Discoveries and Contributions

  • Robert Bruce Foote's Contribution

    Robert Bruce Foote established the science of pre-history in India by discovering the first Palaeolithic artifacts in 1863 A.D. His work was instrumental in the recognition of the significance of India's prehistoric past.

  • H. de Terra and T. T. Paterson

    In the 1930s, H. de Terra and T. T. Paterson conducted detailed surveys in Kashmir, Potwar, and Jammu, leading to further discoveries. By the 1960s, Indian pre-historians confidently divided the Palaeolithic Age into three phases based on the tools and artifacts they uncovered.

Tools of the Lower Palaeolithic Culture

• The major tools of the Lower Palaeolithic phase were hand axes, cleavers, and choppers, also called chopping tools.
• These tools were rough, heavy, and made by chipping the sides of stones.
• Gradually, sharper and lighter tools were developed, with flake tools dominating the Middle Palaeolithic period.
• Upper Palaeolithic tools included burins and scrapers for engraving on soft stones, bones, or rocks.
• Hand axes: Broad at the butt end and narrow at the working edge, used for cutting trees and digging roots.
• Cleavers: Bi-faced edged tools used for splitting objects like tree trunks.
• Choppers: Large core tools with a unifacial working edge used for chopping.
• The hand axes found in India resemble those from Western Asia, Africa, and Europe.
• The primary raw materials for tool-making were quartzite, quartz, and basalt.

Major Sites of Early or Lower Palaeolithic Culture

• Bori (Maharashtra): Considered the earliest Lower Palaeolithic site in India.
• Soan Valley (Punjab, Pakistan): Known for Soanian industries with pebble and core tools.
• Acheulian Industries: Found in various parts of India, characterized by bi-facial flaked artifacts like hand axes and cleavers.
• Pallavaram (Chennai): Robert Bruce Foote discovered a hand axe from the Early Palaeolithic period here in 1863 A.D..
• Rajasthan: Sites include Didwana and Singhitalav, with evidence from both Marwar and Mewar.
• Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh): Caves and rock shelters show Lower Palaeolithic features.
• Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh): Significant site for early stone tools.
• Chirki-Nevasa (Maharashtra): Important site yielding Lower Palaeolithic tools.
• Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh): Another significant site with early stone tools.
• River Banks:
  • Tapti, Godavari, Bhima, and Krishna rivers have numerous Palaeolithic sites.
  • Palar, Penniyar, and Kaveri rivers in Tamil Nadu have sites such as Attiranmpakkam and Gudiyam.
  • The Luni River complex (Rajasthan) has multiple Palaeolithic sites.
• Odisha: Palaeolithic material found in Mayurbhanj, Sundargarh, Sambalpur, and Bolangir districts.
• Jharkhand: Singhbhum and Hazaribagh districts yielded Palaeolithic tools.

Middle Palaeolithic Culture: Tools, Sites, and Characteristics

• Introduction to Middle Palaeolithic Culture

  The Middle Palaeolithic marks the transitional phase from the Early or Lower Palaeolithic to the middle stages. Tools from this era became smaller, thinner, and lighter. The choice of raw materials for tool-making also changed significantly. This period's culture is often referred to as the Mousterian Culture, named after the site of Le Moustier in Southern France, where its characteristic tools were discovered. Evidence of Neanderthal presence has been found across Northern Africa, Southern Africa, East Africa, Europe, and Asia.

  In 1956 A.D., H.D. Sankalia identified the Middle Palaeolithic culture in India by discovering a Flake Industry with scrapers, points, and borers at Nevasa. This culture is referred to as the Nevisian Culture. Another significant tool tradition from this period is the Levalloisian Culture, named after its discovery in France, characterized by tortoise-shaped tools.

• Tools of Middle Palaeolithic Culture

  Middle Palaeolithic tools, classified as Mousterian, have been predominantly found in Europe and Asia. These tools were used by various species of Homo Sapiens and mainly by Neanderthals. The main tools include:

  • Scrapers
  • Borers
  • Knives
  • Blades
  • Burins

  These tools served multiple purposes such as tool-making, hunting, butchering, scraping bones, and other maintenance activities. The use of materials like bones, horns, and wood was prevalent. Sharpened wooden sticks hardened with fire and used as spears indicate large-animal hunting practices.

  Middle Palaeolithic industries were characterized by smaller, lighter tools made from flakes struck from cores. These flakes were sometimes pre-shaped, showing technological advancements. In regions where quartzite was used, elements of the Lower Palaeolithic continued into this phase. This period is generally dated between 100,000 B.C. and 40,000 B.C.

• Major Sites of Middle Palaeolithic Culture

  Several prominent sites of the Middle Palaeolithic have been discovered across India:

  • Soan Valley: Notable for its Middle Palaeolithic artifacts.
  • Narmada River: Numerous tools from this era have been found along its banks.
  • Tungabhadra River: Many sites located south of this river contain Middle Palaeolithic evidence.
  • Wagon and Kalamali Rivers (Mewar): Middle Palaeolithic artifacts are prominent in these regions.
  • Bhandarpur (Orsang Valley): Archaeological findings indicate the presence of Middle Palaeolithic culture.
  • Bhimbetka: Acheulian tradition tools were replaced by Middle Palaeolithic culture tools at this site.
  • Rohri Hills (Upper Sind): The most remarkable group of Middle Palaeolithic sites in the subcontinent is found here.

Upper Palaeolithic Culture: Phases, Tools, and Major Sites

• Introduction to Upper Palaeolithic Culture

  The Upper Palaeolithic culture was the final phase of the Palaeolithic era, lasting until approximately 12,000 years ago. It emerged around 40,000 B.C. and concluded by 10,000 B.C. This period saw the development of distinct cultures with regional variations and significant technological advancements. Major cultural phases of this period include:

  • Aurignacian
  • Solutrean
  • Magdalenian

  Additionally, smaller cultural groups like the Perigordian, Gravettian, and Szeletian also thrived. Evidence of Upper Palaeolithic culture has been discovered across Australia, North America, and South America.

• Tools of Upper Palaeolithic Culture

  During the Upper Palaeolithic period, the art of tool-making reached its peak, particularly with the development of specialized tools by Homo Sapiens. Significant advancements in technology and artistic expression were evident in their tools. Key characteristics of these tools include:

  • Regular use of materials other than stone, such as bone, horn, antler, teeth, tusks, and wood.
  • Composite tools made by hafting (attaching tools to handles).
  • Use of microlithic tools for specialized tasks like hunting, fishing, and crafting.
  • Introduction of blade technology with regular, parallel-edged blades for cutting and scraping.
  • Development of Burins for engraving or drilling tasks.
  • Pressure flaking and retouching techniques for perfecting tool edges and points.

  Some standardized forms of tools included:

  • Spear points
  • Daggers
  • Picks
  • Polished tools
  • Pins and needles
  • Spoon-like implements
  • Perforated antlers

  These innovations reflect the practical, artistic, and aesthetic advancements of the era. Many organic tools, however, did not survive due to natural decay. Notably, small microlithic tools were often attached to handles to create sharp-edged implements used for specialized activities.

  In 1844 A.D., Newbold discovered Blade and Burin tools from limestone caves in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. Additionally, the first bone tool in India was excavated by Robert Bruce Foote from the Billasurgam Cave.

• Major Sites of Upper Palaeolithic Culture

  Archaeological evidence of Upper Palaeolithic artifacts has been identified across various regions of India and neighboring countries. Notable sites include:

  • Thar Region: Upper Palaeolithic artifacts are reported, though they are less frequent than Middle Palaeolithic findings.
  • Sanghao Caves (North West Frontier Province, Pakistan): Significant evidence of Upper Palaeolithic culture is found here.
  • Potwar Plateau (Northern Punjab, Pakistan): Artifacts from this period have been excavated in the region.
  • South India: Various sites indicate the presence of Upper Palaeolithic cultures.
  • Central Gujarat and Northwestern Kathiawar: Evidence of blade and burin industries has been discovered.
  • Renigunta (Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh): A prominent Upper Palaeolithic site known for its blade and burin industry.

Social Life of the Palaeolithic Culture: Society, Tools, Art, and Beliefs

• Introduction to Social Life

  The Palaeolithic Age or Old Stone Age marked a significant phase in human civilization. Early humans began their existence with no more than their hands for tools. Over time, they applied their intellect to craft stone tools and weapons for protection and hunting. This era also marked the foundation of social life, as humans formed groups for collective security and survival.

• Social Organization

  The constant threat of wild animals and the challenges of survival led early humans to form groups. This marked the origin of social life. Key characteristics of social organization during the Palaeolithic period include:

  • Living in groups with a designated leader for guidance and decision-making.
  • Engaging in food gathering and hunting as collective activities.
  • Equal social status among men and women, as social distinctions had not yet emerged.
  • Shared resources and experiences, with communal joys and sorrows.
  • Clothing made from animal skins and tree bark as humans adapted to their environment.

• Food Gathering and Hunting

  Early humans primarily relied on gathering and hunting for sustenance. Their lifestyle was characterized as:

  • Food gatherers: They collected fruits, herbs, and roots from the forest.
  • Hunters: Using crude stone weapons, they hunted wild animals and consumed their flesh.
  • Fishermen: Fishing in rivers and lakes was also a common practice.
  • Fire discovery: Initially, food was consumed raw, but the discovery of fire enabled roasting meat for better consumption.

• Tools and Implements

  Tool-making was a significant occupation during the Palaeolithic period. Early humans developed stone tools to assist with hunting, cutting, and defense. Some notable tools include:

  • Hand-axes: Made from quartzite stone, serving as multi-purpose tools for cutting and scraping.
  • Hatchets: Functioning as axes, knives, hammers, or daggers.
  • Bone and Horn Implements: Towards the end of the Palaeolithic period, bones and animal horns were used to create specialized tools.

  Both men and women participated in making tools and household objects. However, these tools remained crude and unpolished compared to later eras.

• Dwellings and Shelters

  Early humans did not build permanent houses. Their choice of shelter included:

  • Trees: Initial shelters, providing protection from wild animals.
  • Caves: Natural rock shelters offering safety and protection.
  • Riverbanks and Lakeshores: Suitable for easy access to water and food.
  • Huts: Temporary structures made from leaves, branches, and animal hides as humans developed basic construction skills.

• Discovery and Use of Fire

  One of the most significant achievements of the Palaeolithic Age was the discovery of fire. Early humans likely encountered fire through natural events like lightning strikes. They used burning sticks to ignite fires and kept them alive by adding more fuel. Eventually, fire was produced by rubbing stones together.

  Fire served multiple purposes:

  • Providing warmth in cold environments.
  • Enabling the roasting of meat for consumption.
  • Offering protection from wild animals.
  • Acting as a source of light in dark caves.

• Development of Art and Language

  The Palaeolithic era saw the emergence of artistic expression and early forms of communication. Evidence of art includes:

  • Engravings on bones and stones.
  • Polished objects with artistic designs.
  • Cave paintings depicting animals such as mammoths, deer, and birds, often drawn using natural pigments like red, yellow, brown, and black.
  • Decorated tools and ornamental objects, worn as jewelry.

  Notably, the Altamira Caves in Spain, discovered in 1879, contain remarkable cave paintings showcasing bison, horses, and other animals.

  Early humans likely communicated using symbols, markings, and limited vocal sounds. It is believed that Homo Sapiens of the Upper Palaeolithic were capable of speech, similar to modern humans.

• Religious Beliefs

  Religious practices among early humans were rooted in their experiences with nature. Unable to understand natural phenomena such as rain, floods, and seasonal changes, they perceived them as powerful forces. As a result, they began to:

  • Worship natural elements like rain, wind, and fire.
  • Revere wild animals like lions, tigers, and snakes as sacred beings.
  • Believe in a life after death, evident from burial practices and offerings found at archaeological sites.

Indian Sites of Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic Age)

• Lower Palaeolithic Sites

  The Lower Palaeolithic period in India is characterized by the use of crude stone tools and the presence of early human settlements. Notable sites include:

  • Valley of Sohan in Punjab (now in Pakistan) - A major site for the discovery of Lower Palaeolithic tools.
  • Kashmir and the Thar Desert - Evidence of early human activity and stone tool usage.
  • Belan Valley in Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh - Significant for its Palaeolithic remains.
  • Bidwana in Rajasthan - Known for its Lower Palaeolithic artifacts.
  • Narmada Valley - Rich in prehistoric tools and evidence of early human habitation.

• Middle Palaeolithic Sites

  The Middle Palaeolithic phase in India saw advancements in tool-making and a shift towards more sophisticated implements. Prominent sites include:

  • Narmada River Valley - One of the most significant Middle Palaeolithic sites, with numerous stone tools discovered.
  • Tungabhadra River Valley - Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic settlements and stone tool industries.

• Upper Palaeolithic Sites

  The Upper Palaeolithic period in India is marked by the development of refined tools and artistic expression. Major sites include:

  • Andhra Pradesh - Significant for its Upper Palaeolithic tools, including blade and burin industries.
  • Karnataka - Notable for its rock shelters and evidence of early human settlements.
  • Central Madhya Pradesh - Rich in Upper Palaeolithic remains, including artifacts and cave paintings.
  • Maharashtra - Known for its Palaeolithic tools and evidence of prehistoric life.
  • Southern Uttar Pradesh - Important archaeological findings include tools and artifacts from the Upper Palaeolithic era.
  • South Bihar Plateau - Significant evidence of Upper Palaeolithic occupation and tool-making activities.