The period from the fourth to the seventh centuries is a pivotal time in ancient Indian history, as it marked a transitional phase in various aspects such as political, social, economic, religious, and cultural developments. This era has been the subject of much debate, with a rich historiography available for study.
Historians have varied interpretations of this period. Nationalist historians like R.C. Mazumdar and H.C. Raychaudhuri exaggerated the achievements of ancient India, referring to the Gupta period as a "golden age." To them, the Gupta period surpassed all other periods in political unity, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements, including art, architecture, and literature.
However, in the post-independence era, Marxist historians critiqued this nationalist historiography and introduced the theory of "Indian Feudalism" starting from the Gupta period. Scholars like B.D. Chattopadhyaya and Hermann Kulke offered an alternative view with their processualist or integrative model of state formation. According to them, land grants to brahmanas and temples did not lead to decentralization but helped legitimize royal authority in the countryside, thus integrating the territorial units and local chiefs into the emerging regional states.
To understand the social conditions under the Guptas, we rely heavily on contemporary legal texts, particularly the Dharmasastra of Manu, which served as a basis for numerous smrtis written during this period. Some of the best-known smrtis include those by Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brhaspati, and Katyayana.
These smrtis provide an idealized representation of society from a brahmanical perspective. However, contemporary Sanskrit literature often contradicts this ideal, suggesting that these injunctions were not always strictly enforced. This is further supported by the accounts of Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien and Hsuan-tsang, as well as inscriptions of the period.
During the Gupta period, the brahmanical reaction against Buddhism and Jainism became more pronounced. As a result, the varna (caste-based) social stratification became more emphasized, particularly the supremacy of the brahmans (the highest caste). It is difficult to ascertain the exact caste of the Guptas, but they were likely brahmans themselves and strongly supported the brahmanical social order.
Social mobility was still possible, and people could shift between occupations. Brahmans, for instance, sometimes became merchants, architects, or government officials. The jati system, however, became more significant as individuals increasingly identified with smaller occupational groups.
While women were idealized in literature and art, their real-world position was largely subordinate. Education was restricted to upper-class women, and they were generally excluded from public life. Early marriage and strict celibacy for widows were prescribed by contemporary smrtis, which often viewed women as property of their husbands.
Despite this, there were some exceptions, such as Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II, who managed state affairs for 20 years. Women who opted out of the traditional roles, such as Buddhist nuns or courtesans, enjoyed some freedom.
Under the Gupta Empire, men typically wore a dhoti with an upper garment. The Scythians influenced Indian fashion, introducing coats, overcoats, and trousers. Women wore a petticoat with a sari, sometimes with a bodice beneath it, and on ceremonial occasions, they wore silk garments. Various ornaments such as earrings, necklaces, armlets, and anklets were popular.
Amusements during the Gupta period included theatrical performances, dances, and music concerts. Gambling, animal fighting, wrestling, and athletics were also popular pastimes in both towns and villages.
The Gupta period is known for the brahmanical renaissance. It marked a significant transformation in Hinduism and Buddhism. While the Gupta rulers were patrons of Brahmanism, they showed great tolerance toward other religions.
This period saw the synthesis of Brahmanical Hinduism with heterodox creeds like Saivism, Vaishnavism, and the Shakti cult. The combination of these religious ideas gave rise to neo-Hinduism or Puranic Hinduism, which remains influential in contemporary Hinduism. This transformation included the emergence of the concept of the divine Trinity or "Trayi," represented by Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheswar.
The period also saw the rise of the Shakti cult, worshipping female deities like Kali, Durga, and Chamunda, who were seen as the wives of the major gods. The concept of idol worship became widespread, and the Vedic Gods were replaced by deities like Siva, Vishnu, Kartikeya, and Ganesha.
The rise of Tantric Buddhism was another significant religious development during the Gupta period, while Jainism remained more traditional. Jainism continued to flourish in the western and southern regions, while neo-Hinduism dominated northern India.
The religious movements during the Gupta period represented a synthesis of various beliefs, ultimately transforming Brahmanical Hinduism and leading to a more inclusive religious landscape. This transformation had lasting effects on Hinduism and its development in India.
The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant development in the fields of art, architecture, sculpture, and literature. The enormous wealth of the country during the imperial Guptas led to a cultural resurgence in India. According to historians, in architecture, sculpture, and painting, the Gupta rulers excelled more than most of the dynasties that ruled India. This period marked the culmination of earlier tendencies and style and the beginning of new styles and techniques in the field of architecture.
Buddhist art flourished during the Gupta period. A famous rock-cut monastery in the Ajanta caves consists of several Chaitya halls and numerous residential Viharas. The interiors are covered with painted murals that feature superb figures drawn with a gracefully winding line. Large stone figures, stone and terra-cotta reliefs, and large and small bronze statuettes are made in the refined Gupta style; the level of production is uniformly high.
Several significant Buddhist pieces of art were created after the 7th century, during the reign of the Pala Dynasty and Sena Dynasty (730-1197). Images in bronze and hard black stone from Nalanda and elsewhere reveal a development of the Gupta style, with extensive attention to ornamentation and fabrication.
The Gupta architecture is revealed through the cave and temple architecture of those times, which also includes two Buddhist stupas. The "Mirpur Khas Stupa" was built in the 4th century A.D., containing a number of arches. The curve of this stupa denotes that arch-making was known to Indians before the advent of Muslims to India. The relics of the "Dhameka Stupa," built of bricks, represent the idiom of Gupta architecture. The caves of the Buddhist and Hindu sects denote the architectural pattern of the Guptas. Ajanta, Ellora caves, and the Bagh cave paintings denote the Buddhist outline, which was very popular during the Gupta period. Hindu caves are found in Udayagiri, Bhopal. The cave paintings of the Gupta period differ conspicuously from the others due to their artistic elegance and design.
The Gupta Age marked a new era in the history of temple architecture. Freestanding sculptural temples became the chief features of temple architecture during the Gupta period. For the first time, they initiated permanent materials like brick and stone, instead of perishable materials like bamboo and wood. Structural temples, instead of cave temples, were erected during this period for the convenience of idol worship. The Gupta architects invented an artistic standard, which became the general rule of temple construction in subsequent ages.
The stone temple in Deogarh of Dasavatara, with its excellent carvings and panels on the walls, is an extant remnant of Gupta architecture. The 'shikara' or top of the temple is one of the chief attractions of these constructions. The 'Shiva temple' at Nachana, the Parvati Temple at Ajaya Garh in Uttar Pradesh, the Vishnu Temple in the Central Province, and the Ekkalinga Shiva Temple at Satana are some of the extant remains of Gupta architectural pieces.
The main temple or the 'Garvagriha' housed the image of God, and the original temple was connected to the hall by a vestibule. The whole temple complex was surrounded by a spacious courtyard. One of the chief features of temple architecture was to inscribe texts around temple buildings, a practice that was faithfully followed in later years.
The style of the Gandhara School of art and sculpture reached unprecedented excellence during the Gupta period. The style, originally developed in Mathura, was carried to perfection in Sarnath, where Buddha had turned the wheel of law. Gupta sculpture surpassed the sculptural phase of Bharhut and Sanchi, where the subject matter was animal figures and trees. During the Gupta period, spiritual and religious themes dominated the field of sculptures. Most of the sculptures focused on gods like Shiva, Vishnu, and Buddha. The sculptures were exquisite, with proportionate and balanced figures. The sculptors implemented exotic gestures and postures, and the figures appeared to be clothed in fitting attire.
The flavor of Gupta architecture can be found in the Shiva-Parvati relics in Kosam, the Ramayana panel in Deogarh, and also in Sarnath. The Bodhisattva images were representative of the Mathura school of art, which attained unprecedented excellence during the Gupta period. The sculptural tradition of the Gupta Age speaks of the artistic finesse and brilliance of Gupta sculptors.
Apart from architecture and sculpture, paintings held a significant position in the Gupta period. During this time, painting assumed a secular character. The cave paintings of Ajanta, Badami, and Bagh were representative of Gupta paintings. The cave paintings mainly depicted the Jataka stories and the life of Lord Buddha. The Bodhisattva-Padmapani painting of Ajanta represents Bodhisattva standing in a 'trivanga' style. His face depicts a youth with a jeweled crown atop his head, holding a white lotus in his right hand. His face glows with pathos and sympathy for his fellow beings while looking below from heaven.
Art, architecture, and sculpture during the Gupta period reached peak heights, earning the Gupta phase the epithet "the Golden Age of India." Very few examples of temple architecture have survived from the Gupta period. Architecture in the Gupta period temples was still in its formative stage. Rock-cut Buddhist caves at Ajanta and Ellora are among the best examples of Gupta architecture. Classical sculptures reflecting a high aesthetic sensibility are particularly visible in the Buddha images from Sarnath, Mathura, Kushinagar, and Bodh Gaya. These sculptures inspired the portrayal of important Vaishnava and Shaiva deities as impressive coins. Vaishnava representations were either of the deity or an incarnation, which allowed a wider range of images. Shiva was most often represented as a lingam. Terracotta images remained popular and were more accessible to the masses, while stone sculptures were patronized only by the rich.
During the Gupta period, the Puranas attained their final form. Puranas such as the Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Brahmanda Purana, and Harivamsha Purana were completed in this period. The Puranas are important sources for studying Brahmanical religion as well as royal genealogy and historical traditions. During this period, bhakti hymns composed by the Vaishnava Alvar and Shaiva Nayanar saints of South India were also significant.
It is important to note that the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were codified during this time. These epics are important sources for socio-religious and political history. In this section, we shall highlight creative literature that became the source of studies in dramaturgy, poetry, and literary theory in the subsequent period. The famous Natya-Shastra of Bharata, a foundational treatise on dance, drama, and poetry, is possibly dated to these times. Literary criticism and the theory of 'Rasa' became an important feature of creative literature. The ruling elite, the court, and the aristocracy, as well as the urban rich, patronized poetry and prose in Sanskrit.
Kalidasa, the poet at the court of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II, was an extraordinary poet and dramatist whose work enhanced the prestige of the language and inspired later poetic forms. His play Abhijnana-Shakuntala and his long lyrical poem Meghaduta (Cloud Messenger) are considered examples in Sanskrit drama and poetics, respectively. Following Kalidasa’s works, Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya, Magha’s Shishupalakatha, and the Bhatti-Kavya, and somewhat later, Bhavabhuti’s Malati-Madhava are important examples of classical work in Sanskrit. The Mrichchha-Katika (The Little Clay Cart) by Shudraka provides glimpses of urban life. Vishakhadatta chose to dramatize past political events in his Mudrarakshasha, a play about the overthrow of the Nanda king, and in Devi-Chandra-Gupta, about the bid for power by Chandragupta II.
The fables of the Panchatantra and Subandhu’s Vasavadatta are acclaimed for their social message and literary quality, respectively. Band’s Harshacharita is an excellent example of both biography and Sanskrit phrasing, as is his narrative Kadamabari.
Classical Sanskrit was the language of the court and its pronouncements through inscriptions. The dominance of Sanskrit dates back to the Gupta period and continued until about the early second millennium AD, after which regional languages were more widely used. During the times of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals, the court language was Persian. However, local languages and cultures were not abandoned. They can still be glimpsed in the use of Prakrit in various contexts, such as in some inscriptions and in the languages of religious sects.
The Natya-Shastra lists a number of languages and dialects, including those spoken by the lower castes and Chandalas. In addition to Sanskrit, literature in Prakrit also had its patronage among the Jain merchants. The Paumacariyam of Vimalasuri, a Jain version of the Rama story, is a good example of Prakrit and popular literature. It must be noted that high-status characters spoke Sanskrit, whereas those of low social status, including all women, spoke Prakrit in Sanskrit dramas.
During this period, besides Sanskrit and Prakrit, vernacular languages also developed. For example, Sanskrit words like 'sutra' and 'Dharma' appeared in Prakrit as 'Sutta' and 'Dharma.' Other important types of Prakrit included:
While Sanskrit became dominant during the Gupta period, it was primarily a language of the elite. As a result, other languages like Prakrit gained popularity during the Gupta era. Over time, Prakrit was viewed as the language of the lower strata of society, while Sanskrit became associated with those in powerful positions. Another important feature of the Gupta period with regard to language was that it was closely linked to status and gender.
According to Manu, there were two types of teachers during the Gupta age: the Acharya and the Upadhya. The Acharyas were responsible for teaching the Vedas, Upanishads, and Kalpasutras, considering their role as a work of charity. They refrained from taking fees from their pupils. On the other hand, the Upadhyas taught for a living and charged their students for education.
Education was mostly accessible to those in the upper strata of society. Brahmins were entitled to all kinds of education, while Kshatriyas and Sudras had access to limited knowledge. The Sudras were deprived of any formal education.
Among the most famous centers of learning during the Gupta period were the Buddhist-founded monastic colleges, which played a major role in creating a harmonious cultural environment. Other prominent centers like Taxila, Varanasi, Ujjain, and Amravati had already established their significance before the Gupta age. Despite losing some glory due to invasions, the University of Taxila still maintained its educational standards.
Education for children started at the age of five under teachers called Daraka-charyas. Many villages had Lipisalas, or primary schools. Children used to write on wooden boards or draw in the sand.
The Iron Pillar of Delhi, dating back to the time of King Chandra, stands as an enduring testament to the advanced skills in metallurgy during the Gupta period. This pillar has withstood the test of time, remaining rust-free despite exposure to the elements for over 1500 years.
One of the most renowned educational institutions of the Gupta age was Nalanda University, located in Magadha. It served as an international center of learning, drawing students from across Asia, including places like China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, Mongolia, and even Sumatra.
Nalanda was considered the largest university of its time, offering a wide range of subjects such as philosophy, arts, and science. The state funded the university with revenues from over a hundred villages to ensure its upkeep. The university's intellectual atmosphere was unparalleled, with students being tested based on the number of Sutra collections they could master.
The water clock at Nalanda regulated time across northern India, symbolizing the institution's influence and the scientific advancements of the time.
The Gupta period witnessed tremendous developments in various scientific fields, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, metallurgy, and more. Scholars of the time, like Aryabhata and Varahamihira, made revolutionary contributions in their respective fields.
One of the most important mathematical achievements of the Gupta period was the decimal system of notation, which included the concept of zero and the place value system. Aryabhata's famous work, the Aryabhattiyam, written in 499 A.D., delved into topics such as arithmetic, geometry, and algebra.
India led the world in mathematics, with advances in trigonometry and geometry, surpassing even Greek mathematical knowledge.
Astronomy made great strides during the Gupta period, with astronomers like Varahamihira and Aryabhata leading the way. Aryabhata, in particular, correctly explained eclipses and utilized trigonometry for astronomical calculations. His work, Panchasiddhantika, compiled the most authoritative astronomical teachings of his time.
The Gupta period made remarkable progress in medicine, with important texts like the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita. These texts laid out principles of medical ethics, surgical techniques, and herbal remedies. Vaccination for smallpox was also known during this time.
The Gupta period was marked by economic prosperity, aided by flourishing trade, agriculture, and industry. The Roman trade connections, which began during the Kushan period, continued through the Gupta rule, particularly under Chandragupta II. Agriculture played a significant role in the economy. New lands were reclaimed for cultivation, and irrigation projects were actively supported by the state. Taxes on land were low, and agricultural productivity was high during this time.
The Brhaspati was unwilling to respect the income derived from agriculture, and cultivation was prohibited for Buddhist monks. The manufacture of textiles of various kinds was one of the more important industries at this time. Textiles were a prime item of trade between northern and southern India, and there was also a considerable demand in foreign markets.
In addition to textiles, metalwork, particularly in copper, iron, and lead, continued as essential industries. The use of bronze increased, and gold and silver ornaments were in constant demand. It is unclear where the abundant supply of metals came from in the Gupta period, but copper, lead, and tin had to be imported from abroad.
The guild was the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise during this period. Some historians believe that the importance of the guilds declined in the Gupta period, as India no longer participated in the long-distance trade in luxury goods.
However, contemporary sources, particularly the seals found at Vaisali and Bhita, suggest that both the activities and significance of the guild remained during this period. Guilds also acted as bankers, lending money on interest, as did some of the Buddhist sanghas (communities).
Trade between northern India and Southeast Asia was conducted through the ports on the east coast, while the west coast ports served as the link in India’s trade contacts with the Mediterranean region and Western Asia.
India’s trade contacts with Southeast Asia led to Indian settlements there, with Indian influence permeating the local patterns of life, particularly in Thailand, Cambodia, and Java.
The Gupta kings issued special charters to merchant organizations, relieving them from government interference, possibly due to laws that prohibited Brahmanas from traveling by sea, which may have reduced Indian participation in maritime trade.
The campaigns of Samudra Gupta to the east and south, and the repeated tours of Harsha, would have required efficient communication and movement of goods. Ox-drawn carts were common on the roads, and pack animals were used on rough terrain, while elephants were used in heavily forested areas.
The overland trade with central and western Asia did not decline between the fourth and seventh centuries, with an appreciable rise in the import of horses from Iran, Bactria, or Arabia.
The most important innovation in the agricultural sector was the introduction of the land grant economy. Initially, religious denizens were exempted from payment of revenue (land-tax) and later received administrative and judicial rights over villages. However, the economic advantages of land grants to religious specialists like Brahmanas were more significant than the royal act of giving away land.
The process of bringing wasteland or forest into cultivation by Brahmanas resulted in two economic advantages:
Some historians have characterized the socio-economic developments of the Gupta period in terms of feudalism, arguing that the number of land donations to Brahmanas greatly increased during this period. Villages, along with their inhabitants, revenue due to the king, administrative and judicial rights, and even the right to enjoy fines levied on cultivators, were transferred to religious beneficiaries.
Other historians argue against the idea of Indian feudalism. They contend that trade did not decline significantly, and the scarcity of coins was marginal.
Literary records from this period suggest an overall economic prosperity, especially among the upper classes. Fa-hsien describes the people of Madhyadesha (the ‘middle country’) as prosperous and happy in the fifth century. Excavations also point to a high standard of living for urban dwellers.
Despite the opulent imperial façade, the maintenance of such an empire must have been a drain on the economy, indicated by the debased Later Gupta coinage suggesting an economic crisis. In some regions of the subcontinent, the Gupta age marked the conclusion of the economic momentum from the previous period.
In the days when historians discussed ‘Golden Ages’, the Gupta period was often described as such. Civilizations were said to have a Golden Age when virtually every manifestation of life reached a peak of excellence. The Gupta period was selected largely because of impressive literary works in Sanskrit and the high quality of art, which coincided with what was viewed as a brahmanical ‘renaissance’.
Since Indian civilization had early been characterized as Hindu and Sanskritic, the initial spread of brahmanical culture as ‘high’ culture on an unprecedented scale was described as a golden period. The distant past had an advantage, for it allowed greater recourse to imagination in recreating that past.
Now that historians are commenting on all aspects of society, the notion of a uniformly Golden Age that encompasses an entire society has been questioned. The description of a Golden Age reflected the life of the wealthy and their activities, which characterized such an age.
There are at least three epochs when artistic and literary expression achieved impressive standards:
The precursor to the culture of the Gupta period was not restricted to northern India. The Deccan shows a striking evolution of cultures during this time. The classicism of the Gupta period is not an innovation emanating from Gupta rule but the culmination of a process that began earlier.
New artistic forms were initiated during the pre-Gupta period in northern India, such as those associated with Buddhism, which also found parallels in other religious sects. This included the writing of texts on technical subjects and creative literature of various kinds. Much of the articulation was in Sanskrit, but it is important to note that Sanskritic culture assumes certain kinds of social and cultural exclusivity, which demarcates social groups.
While attempting a transition towards a uniform, elite culture, it becomes a catalyst for many others. The description of the Gupta period as one of classicism is relatively correct regarding the upper classes, who lived well according to descriptions in their literature and representations in their art.
However, the more accurate, literal evidence that comes from archaeology suggests a less glowing lifestyle for the majority. Materially, excavated sites suggest that the average standard of living may have been higher in the preceding period.
The literary as well as archaeological records of this period suggest an overall socioeconomic prosperity, at least among the upper classes of the Gupta Empire. Fa-hsien describes the people of Madhyadesha (the ‘middle country’) as prosperous and happy towards the beginning of the fifth century.
Evidence of material conditions obtained from excavations also points to a high standard of living. The prosperous urban dwellers lived in luxury, and comfort in the urban centers was not confined to the upper classes. Yet, it was a culture with wide variations. The untouchables lived on the outskirts of the opulent cities, and the peasantry were gradually being impoverished.
In the sphere of agriculture, large-scale land grants created a situation of subinfeudation, which in the subsequent period led to the emergence of a feudal setup in India. In the sphere of trade and commerce, India witnessed prosperity.
This period also witnessed the origin of Hindu temple architecture and the culmination of Buddhist rock-cut architecture.
In painting and sculpture, the Gupta period was an important epoch in the history of art in the Indian subcontinent.