Age of the Mauryas : Chandragupta Maurya, Imperial Organisation, Ashoka, Buddhism, Doctrine of Dhamma

Chandragupta Maurya

• Origins and Background

  • The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, believed to be from an ordinary family.

  • Brahmanical tradition suggests he was born of Mura, a Sudra woman, in the court of the Nandas.

  • Alternative Buddhist tradition indicates he might have belonged to a Kshatriya clan called Mauryas from the Gorakhpur region.

• Overthrow of the Nandas

  • Chandragupta, with the aid of Chanakya (Kautilya), overthrew the Nandas and established the Maurya dynasty.

  • He liberated north-western India from Seleucus, ruler of the area west of the Indus.

  • A peace treaty was signed, with Seleucus ceding eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the area west of the Indus for 500 elephants.

• Empire Expansion

  • Chandragupta built a vast empire covering Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, western and north-western India, and the Deccan.

  

  • The Mauryas ruled over the entire subcontinent except for Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of north-eastern India.

  • In the north-west, they controlled areas not even included in the British empire.

Imperial Organization

• Administrative Structure

  • The Maurya empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a prince from the royal family.

  • Provinces were subdivided into smaller units, with major cities like Pataliputra, Kausambi, Ujjain, and Taxila receiving special administrative focus.

• City Administration

  • Pataliputra, the capital, was managed by six committees of five members each.

  • These committees handled sanitation, care of foreigners, registration of births and deaths, regulation of weights and measures, and other functions.

• Central Government and Military

  • The central government operated numerous departments to oversee social and economic activities near the capital.

  • Chandragupta’s administration maintained a large army with various units assigned to different committees.

Important Officers during Mauryan Administration

Title	Role
Sitadhyaksha	Supervised agriculture
Bandhanagaradhyaksha	Looked after the jail
Pautavadhyaksha	Superintendent of weight and measure
Panyadhyaksha	Incharge of trade and commerce
Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika	Looked after goods manufactured in the centres
Dandapala	Head of Police
Nava Adhyaksha	Superintendent of ships
Sulkaadhyaksha	Collector of tolls
Annapala	Head of Food Grains Department
Durgapal	Head of Royal Fort
Koshadhyaksha	Treasury Officer
Akaradhyaksha	Mining Officer
Nayaka	City Security Chief
Vyabharika	Chief Judge
Karmantika	Head of Industries and Factories
Ayudhagaradhyaksha	Looked after production and maintenance of armaments
Swarn Adhyaksha	Officer of Gold Department
Kupyadhyaksha	Officer of Forest

Ashoka (273-232 B.C.)

• Early Reign and Conversion

  

  • Asoka, the son of Bindusara, is renowned as one of the greatest Mauryan rulers. Initially, he was known for his cruelty but later embraced Buddhism.

  • Asoka’s conversion was significantly influenced by the Kalinga war, which caused him to adopt Buddhist principles and focus on cultural rather than territorial expansion.

• Inscriptions and Communication

  • Asoka is the first Indian king to address his people directly through inscriptions, which are found on rocks, polished stone pillars, and caves across the Indian subcontinent and in Kandhar, Afghanistan.

  • These inscriptions highlight his promotion of dharma and his appeal to tribal peoples and frontier kingdoms.

• Missionary Activities

  • Under Asoka, a Buddhist council was chaired by his brother, and missionaries were dispatched to south India, Sri Lanka, Burma, and beyond to spread Buddhism.

  • Asoka’s efforts included making substantial gifts to Buddhists and undertaking pilgrimages to Buddhist shrines, as reflected in the dharma yatras mentioned in his inscriptions.

Ashoka's Dhamma

• Concept of Paternal Kingship

  

  • Asoka aimed to set a high ideal of paternal kingship, urging officials to treat subjects as their own children and take care of their well-being.

  • He appointed dharmamahamatras to promote dharma across various social groups, including women.

  • Rajukas were assigned the task of administering justice throughout the empire.

• Rejection of Rituals and Social Practices

  • Asoka disapproved of certain rituals, particularly those performed by women.

  • He forbade the killing of specific birds and animals and prohibited animal slaughter in the capital.

  • Gay social functions involving revelry were also interdicted by Asoka.

• Dharma and Social Order

  • Asoka's dharma aimed to preserve social order through obedience to parents, respect for brahmanas and Buddhist monks, and mercy towards slaves and servants.

  • These principles are reflected in both Buddhist and Brahmanical traditions.

Ashoka's Place in History

• Policy of Peace and Non-Aggression

  

  • Asoka’s policy focused on peace, non-aggression, and cultural conquest, making gifts to various religious sects, including non-Buddhist and anti-Buddhist groups.

  • His missionary activities supported administration and promoted cultural interactions within his empire.

• Legacy of Non-Aggression

  • Asoka is notable for his commitment to non-aggression, urging successors to abandon conquest and aggression.

  • Despite his resources and army, Asoka did not wage war after Kalinga, demonstrating his advanced approach to peace.

• Challenges to His Policy

  • Asoka's policy had limited long-term impact on his viceroys and vassals, who declared independence after his retirement in 232 BC.

  • His neighboring regions attacked the north-western frontier within 25 years of his departure from power.

Exercises

• Who was Chandragupta Maurya?

  Chandragupta Maurya was a prominent Indian emperor who established the Maurya dynasty. Rising from humble beginnings, his strategic alliances and military skill, aided by Chanakya, led to the downfall of the Nanda dynasty and the formation of the Maurya era marked by effective leadership and reforms.

• Describe the Imperial Organization set up by the Mauryas.

  The Mauryas created a structured administrative system with provinces governed by royal princes and further divided into smaller units. Major cities like Pataliputra, Kausambi, Ujjain, and Taxila were central to administration and commerce. Specialized committees managed various administrative and military functions.

• Write notes on Megasthenes and Kautilya’s Arthasastra.

  Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, provided insights into Mauryan administration through his writings, though originals are lost. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, a seminal work on governance, offers detailed prescriptions on administration and strategy relevant to the Mauryan era.

• What is meant by the dharma of Asoka?

  Asoka’s dharma refers to the moral and ethical principles he promoted, particularly after his conversion to Buddhism. It emphasized non-violence, social harmony, and benevolent governance, aiming for universal justice and righteousness.

• How did Asoka promote Buddhism?

  Asoka supported Buddhism through patronage, the establishment of monasteries, and missionary work. His edicts and inscriptions promoted Buddhist teachings and ethical principles, significantly influencing the spread of Buddhism.

• Write a biography of Asoka.

  Asoka, also known as Ashoka the Great, was a key figure in ancient Indian history. His early conquests were overshadowed by his transformation following the Kalinga War. Embracing Buddhism, Asoka adopted a policy of Dhamma that focused on social welfare, tolerance, and ethical rule, leaving a lasting impact on Indian civilization and Buddhism.

The Age of the Mauryas: Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka & their legacy: Chandragupta Maurya

• Kingdoms vs. Empires:
  • Kingdoms tend to draw maximum profit from existing resources without restructuring access to them.
  • Empires require significant restructuring to meet financial needs, often adjusting to demands and available resources.
  • Imperial systems attempt to erase variations in favor of cultural and economic homogeneity.
  • Cultural homogeneity is often sought by promoting ideologies like Ashoka's dhamma.
  • Economic restructuring becomes necessary in an empire, limited to resources with maximum potential.
  • Examples from Mauryan Empire: Extension of agriculture, mobility of labor, and expansion of commercial exchange.
• Chandragupta Maurya and the foundation of the Mauryan Empire:
  • Chandragupta succeeded to the Nanda throne around 321 BC, with guidance from Kautilya.
  • Stories of his rise come from Buddhist and Jaina texts and the play Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta.
  • Origin and caste status of the Maurya family varies across sources: Buddhist texts claim a higher status, while brahmanical sources suggest shudra origins.
• Strategic rise to power of Chandragupta:
  • Young Maurya and his supporters were inferior in armed strength to the Nandas, which necessitated strategic action.
  • Chandragupta's strategy involved harassing outlying areas and moving gradually toward the center of the Nanda kingdom.
  • Once the Ganges Plain was under his control, he moved to the north-west to exploit the power vacuum created by Alexander's departure.
• Conflict with Seleucus Nicator in 305 BC:
  • Chandragupta defeated Seleucus and secured a treaty in 303 BC, with some territories ceded to the Mauryas.
  • Territories ceded: Eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Makran.
  • The shift from Persian-Hellenistic to Mauryan control marked a significant change in the region's political landscape.
  • In return, Seleucus obtained 500 elephants, significant in Hellenistic military strategy.
  • Marriage alliance (epigammia) may have been a diplomatic gesture between the two royal families or a legal recognition of mixed marriages.
• The foundation of the Mauryan Empire was solidified:
  • Chandragupta controlled the Indus and Ganges Plains and borderlands, establishing a formidable empire.

• Campaigns in the ancient world were not merely a mechanism for acquiring more territory.
  • They were frequently enterprises motivated by considerable diplomatic play, as well as a search for economic advantage.
  • Diplomacy took the form of relationships with neighbors, which was later formalized into the theory of mandala – a circle of diplomacy involving allies and enemies.
  • Economic advantage was more visible:
    • This was evident not only in the nature and location of the territory to be conquered and its resources, but also in the nature of the campaign.
    • Large-scale campaigns against wealthy neighbors were a source of:
      • Booty.
      • Taking prisoners-of-war who could be used as labor.
  • Campaigns, therefore, were more than just military matters:
    • The campaign against the Seleucids was aimed at wresting Gandhara from them, as it had yielded impressive revenues since the time it was part of the Achaemenid Empire.
    • The acquisition of central India meant access to the peninsula, another area with untapped resources by northern powers.
• Despite the campaign, there was considerable friendly and inquisitive contact between the Mauryas and the Seleucids:
  • Chandragupta is referred to as Sandrocottos in later accounts and is said to have met Alexander as a young man.
  • In the eighteenth century, William Jones identified Sandrocottos with Chandragupta, which helped in Mauryan chronology.
  • It’s possible that as a result of a marriage alliance, one of Seleucus's daughters came to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra, possibly accompanied by Greek women.
  • An exchange of envoys between the Mauryas and the Seleucids, and with further Hellenistic states, was initiated, accompanied by an exchange of gifts (including aphrodisiacs!).
  • Pataliputra welcomed visitors, with the city administration having a special committee to care for their welfare.
  • Seleucus’s envoy, Megasthenes, is said to have spent time in India and left an account titled Indica.
    • Much of this account could have been gathered from conversations and travelers' tales, rather than personal knowledge.
    • Some contemporaries doubted that he spent time at Pataliputra, and the original account has been lost, with later authors such as Diodorus, Strabo, and Arrian providing paraphrases.
• The Jaina tradition claims that towards the end of his life, Chandragupta abdicated in favor of his son Bindusara and became an ascetic:
  • He went to south India with Jaina elder Bhadrabahu and other monks, where he ended his life by regulated slow starvation.
  • A site near Shravana Belgola in Karnataka is associated with this story.
• Bindusara succeeded around 297 BC:
  • To the Greeks, he was known as Amitrochates, meaning "the destroyer of foes."
  • He was a man of wide interests, and it is said that he asked King Antiochus I to send him sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist.
  • Buddhist tradition associates him with an interest in the Ajivika sect.
  • A Tibetan history of Buddhism attributes to him the conquest of "the land between the two seas" (Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal).
    • This suggests that Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending Mauryan control as far south as Karnataka.
  • The recent discovery of Ashokan edicts at Sannathi in Karnataka, similar to those found at Kalinga in Orissa, raises questions about whether this region was conquered by Ashoka, rather than Bindusara.
  • Early Tamil poets speak of Mauryan chariots thundering across the land with brilliant white pennants.
  • Despite this, there were friendly relations with the chiefdoms of the far south.
  • At Bindusara's death (c. 272 BC), a large part of the subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty.
  • Kalinga, on the east coast (Orissa), was hostile and potentially interfered with Mauryan commerce with the peninsula and south India, and its conquest was left to Bindusara's son Ashoka.
• Ashoka's campaign in Kalinga became more than just a military event:
  • It marked a turning point in Ashoka’s life and reign.
  • Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism is tied to this famous campaign.
    • The campaign was aimed at acquiring resources, safeguarding profitable trade routes, and chastising the Kalingans for breaking away from Magadhan control.
  • The destruction caused by the war filled Ashoka with remorse.
    • His earlier interest in Buddhism was rekindled and became central to his life.
    • While it was often said that Ashoka was dramatically converted to Buddhism after the battle, he states in one inscription that it took him two and a half years to become a zealous devotee.
  • Ashoka’s conversion led him to endorse non-violence and abandon war as a means of conquest.
  • Curiously, he refrained from engraving his confession of remorse in Kalinga.
    • Instead, he issued Separate Edicts, focusing on good administration.

• Ashoka's statement on the Kalinga campaign is extraordinary, setting him apart as a rare human being:
  • The statement describes the conquest of Kalinga after eight years of Ashoka's reign.
  • 150,000 people were deported, 100,000 were killed, and many more perished.
  • After the annexation of Kalinga, Ashoka practiced and taught Dhamma earnestly.
  • Ashoka felt remorse for the violence and suffering caused by the conquest.
  • He was deeply disturbed by the suffering of all people due to violence, murder, and separation from loved ones.
  • The suffering of the people weighed heavily on his mind.
• During Ashoka's reign, the Buddhist Sangha underwent reorganization with the Third Buddhist Council held in Pataliputra around 250 BC:
  • The Theravada sect claimed to represent the true teachings of the Buddha, which helped it become dominant in the southern tradition.
  • Ashoka did not mention the council directly, but there is a possible oblique reference in his inscriptions.
  • The decision to send missionaries across the subcontinent and beyond, making Buddhism an actively proselytizing religion, was likely taken at this council.
• Buddhism contrasted with Vedic Brahmanism in its treatment of caste:
  • Unlike Brahmanism, Buddhism did not make caste a barrier for monks or lay followers.
  • However, Buddhism was unable to eliminate caste as a form of social stratification, similar to Christianity and Islam in later times.
• Ashoka's diplomatic missions and trade connections with the Hellenistic world enhanced communication with countries to the west:
  • Ashoka's exchanges of envoys with various Hellenistic kings, including Antiochus II, Ptolemy II, and others, are recorded in his inscriptions.
  • These kings were connected by kinship, forming the basis for the chronology of Indian history.
  • The Seleucids were particularly close neighbors to the Mauryan Empire, and the Ashokan pillar capitals resembled those of Persepolis.
  • The Ashokan inscriptions in different scripts (Greek, Aramaic, Kharoshthi, Brahmi) reflect regional and cultural diversity across the empire.
• Ashoka's relationships with regions beyond India included Khotan (central Asia) and Nepal:
  • Tibetan sources claim that Ashoka visited Khotan, but this is unlikely due to the hazardous terrain.
  • Ashoka's daughter is said to have married a nobleman from Nepal, establishing a connection.
• The southern regions of India had friendly relations with Ashoka but were not conquered:
  • The Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras, and Keralaputras were among the kingdoms with which Ashoka had peaceful ties.
  • No evidence suggests Ashoka attempted to conquer the far south, as resources there were not as visible or accessible at the time.
• Relations with Sri Lanka were particularly close:
  • Ashoka's son, Mahinda, was the first Buddhist missionary to Sri Lanka, where King Tissa is said to have modeled himself after Ashoka.
  • Frequent exchanges of gifts and envoys occurred between India and Sri Lanka.
  • Ashoka is said to have gifted a branch of the original bodhi tree to Sri Lanka, which is said to have survived there.
• The first three Maurya rulers’ reigns (about 90 years) were the most significant:
  • Their importance lay in not only administering a vast territory but also unifying diverse elements of the subcontinent.
  • They articulated a political vision that influenced Indian political life for centuries, though few rulers replicated the Mauryan pattern.
  • The Mauryan Empire's rise was determined by various factors, such as effective administration and unity across diverse regions.

• The Arthashastra and Governance
  • Provides a detailed blueprint for governance in the Mauryan Empire.
  • Authored by Kautilya (Chanakya), likely in the 3rd century AD, though its precise dating is uncertain.
  • Focuses on the idealized structure of governance, taxation, and political economy.
  • Encourages a centralized, efficient system of administration.
• Agrarian Economy and Taxation
  • Northern India's economy was largely agrarian, with land revenue as the main government income.
  • Regular tax assessments increased fiscal security.
  • Kautilya outlined tax collection methods, including restrictions on private land clearance to control revenue sources.
  • Non-agrarian activities (e.g., livestock, trade) were also taxed.
  • The state supervised land clearance, particularly in areas of wasteland.
• Private Land Ownership and Tenancy
  • Private property in land was recognized, with priority on the sale of land going to kinsmen and creditors.
  • Large landowners collected rent from tenants, while the state supervised certain crown lands.
  • Tenancy variations and land distribution practices were mentioned in the Arthashastra.
• Shudras and Labour
  • Shudras (laborers) settled in new lands, initially exempt from taxes but eventually taxed once settled.
  • Their status differed from slavery; they were not owned by the state or ruling class.
  • Other labor categories (slaves and hired laborers) had limited freedom and faced significant oppression.
  • Indian slavery was different from Greek or Athenian slavery, with the possibility for slaves to buy freedom or be released by their masters.
• Land Revenue Systems
  • Taxes were levied on both land area and agricultural produce.
  • Ashoka's inscriptions mentioned bali and bhaga as forms of tax.
  • The tax rate varied, with land quality and produce volume as key factors.
  • Taxes were also applied to livestock, water, and labor.
  • The Vishti tax was a form of corvée labor, where people provided free labor instead of a tax.
• Irrigation and Agriculture
  • State responsibility for irrigation included maintaining dams, lakes, and canals.
  • Private irrigation systems were taxed less or exempt.
  • Agricultural land typically supported two crops a year, although famines were recorded.
• Crafts and Trade Expansion
  • The Mauryan Empire's political unity fostered the growth of craft associations and trade.
  • Artisans working in state workshops were exempt from taxes, but others had to pay taxes.
  • These associations (shrerti/puga) eventually functioned like guilds.
  • The state controlled merchandise sales through supervision, tolls, and taxes.
  • Merchants paid tolls and taxes on goods, with prices regulated to prevent excessive profit.
  • Usury was common, with interest rates ranging from 15% to 60%, depending on the transaction type.
• Urbanization and Material Culture
  • Mauryan urban centers, like Pataliputra, showed an improved standard of living.
  • Residential buildings were made of brick, with monumental architecture (palace, audience hall) of stone.
  • Pataliputra had a defensive wooden palisade and other timber buildings, though fire risk was significant.
  • Archaeological findings support the presence of urban features like ring wells and increased iron usage.
  • Trade and cultural influence spread, as evidenced by the distribution of Northern Black Polished Ware.
• Major Towns and Urban Connectivity
  • Major towns were distantly located, especially those outside the Ganges Plain.
  • Towns like Mahasthan (Bogra, Bangladesh), Shishupalgarh (Orissa), and Amaravati (Krishna delta) had limited contact.
  • Pataliputra was much larger than these towns.
  • Shishupalgarh was likely the administrative center of Tosali, mentioned in an edict of Ashoka.
  • The Kalinga conquest and Amaravati's location likely prompted activity along the east coast.
  • In the post-Mauryan period, a series of Buddhist sites along the coast emerged.
• Coins and Terracotta Art
  • Punch-marked coins and uninscribed cast copper coins were common in Mauryan periods, with symbols like crescent-on-arches, hills, and sun symbols.
  • Attempts to arrange coins chronologically by weight were inconclusive.
  • Terracotta figures were popular, contrasting with the sophisticated stone pillars and capitals.
  • Terracotta figures were for ordinary people, while stone sculptures were royal artistic statements.
  • Stone-cutting and carving techniques developed significantly, with the Mauryan polish giving stone a distinctive gloss.
  • Stone sculptures, like those of yakshas and yakshis, were favored by the wealthy and powerful.
  • Examples of stone figures, such as the famous Didarganj yakshi, exhibit perfect polish.
  • The stone elephant at Dhauli was of rougher workmanship compared to the more polished pieces.

• Welding a Subcontinental Society
  • Megasthenes describes Mauryan society as having seven divisions:
    • Philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates, and councillors.
    • These have been interpreted as castes, as Megasthenes mentions that no one is allowed to marry outside their division or change professions, except philosophers.
    • This description may refer to varna (the four-fold social order) but could be closer to the concept of jati, where the social group one was born into determined their marriage and profession.
    • Interestingly, there is no mention of untouchables or the notion of social pollution.
  • Philosophers were divided into Brahmanas and Sramanas, referring to Vedic Brahmanism and ascetic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Philosophers were exempt from taxation, a practice seen in Indian sources referring to brahmans and monks.
• Farmers
  • This category included both landowners and shudra cultivators and laborers working the land.
  • Agriculture was central to the Mauryan infrastructure, both civil and military.
  • Cultivators were kept unarmed to reduce the likelihood of revolts, and peasants sometimes migrated to neighboring kingdoms rather than revolting.
• Soldiers
  • The Mauryan army was larger than that of the Nandas, with inflated numbers in ancient accounts (e.g., 700 elephants, 1,000 horses, 80,000 infantry).
  • In peacetime, soldiers spent their time idly, supported by the royal treasury.
  • Membership in the army was not restricted to Kshatriyas, with soldiers from lower castes also serving in various roles.
• Herdsmen
  • Herdsmen were categorized as tribes, likely pastoralists with clan identities.
  • They might have included hunter-gatherers, shifting cultivators, and horticulturalists, as well as the atavikas (forest dwellers).
• Artisans
  • Artisans were classified based on their craft. Metalworkers had a higher status than weavers or potters.
  • Wealthy artisans were considered gahapatis (householders), while those with small incomes were likely among the shudras.
  • No mention of merchants is found in this classification, though Greek terms suggest artisans could be petty traders.
• Magistrates and Councillors
  • These individuals were typically from the Brahman or Kshatriya classes but exceptions existed.
• Social Structure
  • The description of society in Megasthenes suggests a more flexible structure than modern scholars assumed.
  • The differentiation between upper and lower castes was based on both economic and social status.
  • Traders and merchants were economically powerful but had a more ambiguous social position, particularly when compared to the brahmanical castes.
  • Urban guild leaders played a significant role but were denied high social prestige due to brahmanical norms.
  • Buddhist texts respect merchants and financiers, indicating a cultural tension between the brahmans and heterodox sects like Buddhism.
• Women in Society
  • The king's bodyguard included women archers, who accompanied him on hunts, suggesting a unique role for women in royal service.
  • Women from impoverished or widowed upper castes were employed by the state for tasks like spinning yarn, but their movements were restricted.
  • Women of lower classes, such as peasants, had to continue their husbands' agricultural work if the family was in debt.
  • Women who gave birth to their master's child were manumitted along with the child.
  • Female ascetics were rare but existed, typically in palace literature.
  • Prostitutes were taxed, and the state took measures to protect them, as evidenced by penalties for harm.
  • Women camp-followers may have come from the same professional group as prostitutes.
• Social Categories in the Ashokan Edicts
  • Surprisingly, the Ashokan edicts do not mention varna or jati, suggesting they were not yet prominent social categories.
  • Social distinctions were still evident, marked by representations in art, such as the animal motifs on Ashoka's pillar capitals.
  • The terracotta figures of animals and humans reflect popular religious ideas and decorative functions.

• Centralized bureaucracy was influenced by the economic conditions of the time and the Arthashastra.
  • The degree of centralization suggested by the Arthashastra may not have been uniformly applied across the empire.
  • The system's structure was likely adjusted based on local realities and regional diversity.
• The king was at the nucleus of the Mauryan system, with increased powers and a paternal role as per Ashoka’s interpretation.
  • Ashoka's call was "All men are my children," emphasizing his paternal kingship.
  • The king traveled extensively to stay in touch with his subjects.
• Legislation was primarily about confirming social usage, with the king making final decisions after consulting his ministers.
  • The ministerial council had no fixed political status and depended on the personality of the king.
  • Frequent consultations between Ashoka and his ministers are mentioned in his edicts.
• Two key administrative offices: treasurer (accounting for income) and chief collector (tax collection).
  • The treasurer handled both cash income and income in kind.
  • The chief collector kept records of taxes across the empire.
• Salaries of officials were significant, with a hierarchical salary structure: chief minister and army commander received 48,000 panas, while artisans earned 120 panas.
  • Higher officials were extremely well paid, which could have drained the treasury.
  • There is an interesting salary ratio between clerks, soldiers, and higher officials.
• Public works included roads, wells, rest-houses, irrigation projects, army maintenance, and royal family grants.
  • Projects like the Sudarshana lake and royal grants for religious institutions were funded by the treasury.
  • Urban and provincial maintenance was another significant expense.
• The Mauryan administration was adapted to different regional realities, with varying degrees of centralization.
  • Areas like Magadha were likely more closely aligned with Kautilya’s vision of centralized control.
  • Core areas were governed directly, while peripheral areas were less centralized.
• The empire was divided into provinces, each under a royal family member, with key administrative centres in Taxila, Ujjain, and Dhauli.
  • Governors were sometimes chosen from local people, like the Iranian Tushaspa in Saurashtra.
  • Senior officers conducted audits every five years to ensure proper provincial administration.
• Judicial officers (rajukas) handled both judicial and assessment duties, with fines as a common punishment, although capital punishment was retained for serious crimes.
  • Fines were applied for most offenses, but certain crimes resulted in capital punishment.
  • In addition to judicial duties, rajukas also oversaw revenue collection in cities and rural areas.
• The administrative system included districts and villages as the final units of governance, with accountants and tax collectors at each level.
  • The village was the smallest administrative unit, with local officials managing land registration, census, and livestock records.
  • The headman of the village had official responsibilities to the accountants and tax collectors.
• Urban administration had its own hierarchy, including a city superintendent and committees managing various aspects such as industry, trade, and public welfare.
  • The city superintendent was responsible for law, order, and cleanliness.
  • Committees in cities managed specific functions like industry, trade, and public health.
• Espionage was a key tool for maintaining control, with spies working under various guises to gather information, including recluses and merchants.
  • Spies worked under cover as ascetics, students, and even prostitutes to gather intelligence.
  • Ashoka’s agents helped him stay informed about public opinion and the activities of remote areas.

• Ashoka's Dhamma: Ashoka expounded an idea that was new to Indian political and social theory, which has received significant attention.
  • Definition of Dhamma: Dhamma, derived from the Sanskrit word Dharma, means universal law, righteousness, and the social and religious order found in Brahmanism.
    • In the Buddhist Canon, Dhamma refers to the teachings of the Buddha, but Ashoka gave it a broader meaning.
  • Early Studies of Ashoka: Early studies of Ashoka, based on Buddhist chronicles and his own edicts, emphasized his Buddhist beliefs.
    • Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism after the battle of Kalinga was dramatized, portraying him as both a monk and a monarch.
    • Ashoka's Buddhism was part of a social and intellectual movement that influenced many aspects of society.
  • Ashoka’s Distinction Between Personal Belief and Kingship: Ashoka made a distinction between his personal belief in Buddhism and his responsibility as a king to respect all religions.
    • The edicts are divided into two groups: one focusing on his personal adherence to Buddhism, and the other on general religious tolerance.
  • The Major and Minor Rock Edicts: These inscriptions were located in places where people gathered and were read aloud to spread ideas.
    • The Minor Rock Edicts reaffirm Ashoka’s Buddhism, while the Major Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts define Dhamma.
    • Ashoka’s Dhamma was not about piety from religious beliefs but about a social ethic aimed at reducing social conflict and intolerance.
  • Dhamma as a Social Ethic: Dhamma was focused on ethical behavior toward others and recognition of human dignity.
    • Ashoka’s Dhamma was aligned with contemporary debates about social issues beyond religious organizations.
  • Context and Implementation of Dhamma: Ashoka’s Dhamma can be seen as a response to contemporary conditions, including competing ideologies like Jainism, Buddhism, and Brahmanism.
    • The Mauryas favored heterodox sects but were not hostile to Brahmanism.
    • The empire’s diversity required a common perspective, which Ashoka sought through Dhamma, influenced by intellectual and religious currents.
  • Principles of Dhamma: Dhamma emphasized tolerance, respect for all religious sects, and ethical treatment of others.
    • Ashoka’s principles included respect for slaves, servants, teachers, parents, and generosity towards friends, acquaintances, and religious groups.
    • He urged consideration for differences, believing that tolerance would foster harmony and reduce sectarian conflicts.
  • Non-violence in Dhamma: Ashoka promoted non-violence, which extended to renouncing war and limiting the killing of animals.
    • Ashoka recognized that some violence might be necessary, but he preferred to conquer with mercy and clemency.
    • He reduced the amount of meat cooked in the royal kitchen and declared certain animals, birds, and fish as inviolable.
    • He also promoted the planting of medicinal herbs for both humans and animals.
  • Welfare Measures under Dhamma: Ashoka implemented policies aimed at the welfare of his people.
    • He planted banyan trees, mango groves, dug wells, and built rest houses along roads to benefit both humans and animals.
    • He emphasized that these actions were meant to help his people conform to Dhamma.
  • Criticism of Superstitions: Ashoka criticized useless ceremonies and superstitions, though he allowed spectacles to attract attention to Dhamma.
    • He viewed these displays as a form of propaganda to promote Dhamma.
  • Dhamma-Mahamatta Officers: To implement Dhamma, Ashoka appointed officers called dhamma-mahamattas, who were concerned with the welfare of the people.
    • Although their intention was noble, the officers may have interfered more than necessary in the lives of people.
  • Challenges to Dhamma: Despite Ashoka’s efforts, the policy of Dhamma did not fully succeed.
    • Social tensions and sectarian conflicts persisted or were adjusted but remained.
    • Nonetheless, Ashoka is admired for his attempt to define and implement a social ethic as emperor.
  • Chakravarti Concept: In Buddhist tradition, Ashoka is depicted as a chakravarti, or universal monarch, but he did not describe himself as such, possibly because it was not his intention to embody this concept.

• Imperial Decline: Ashoka ruled for thirty-seven years and died around 232 BC. Subsequently, a political decline set in, and the empire began to break up.
  • The last of the Mauryas, Brihadratha, was assassinated during an inspection of the troops by the brahman Pushyamitra, the commander of the army.
  • Pushyamitra founded the successor Shunga dynasty. However, military coups were rare in the early history of India.
  • This incident is frequently quoted as a case of the ineptitude of the ruler allowing himself to be removed.
• The Pattern of Empire Break-Up: The break-up of the empire has its own interest in terms of the continuance of the metropolitan area and the evolving of the core regions into independent states.
  • The Ganges Plain remained under the Mauryas, becoming the nucleus of the kingdom of their successors.
  • The north-western areas were lost to the rising ambitions of the Bactrian Greeks, and remained vulnerable to politics from across the borderlands.
  • Interestingly, some of the gana-sanghas of the Punjab and Rajasthan seem to have survived and reasserted themselves.
  • However, the gana-sanghas of the middle Ganges Plain had succumbed to monarchical rule.
  • Other parts of the empire, such as Gandhara, Kalinga, and parts of the western Deccan, broke away into smaller states.
• The Mauryan Empire’s Decline: The decline of the Mauryan Empire has been attributed to several factors, including Ashoka’s policies.
  • Ashoka has been accused of causing a revolt of the brahmans because of his pro-Buddhist policy.
  • However, his general policy was not an active proselytizing in favour of Buddhism at the expense of Brahmanism.
  • His policy was open to acceptance or rejection by all or any, and he repeatedly states that respect is to be shown to both brahmans and shramanas.
  • There is little evidence to suggest that Vedic Brahmanism was the prevalent religion in the Indian subcontinent at that time.
  • The spread of Buddhism came from its new patrons in the mercantile community in the post-Mauryan period.
• Non-Violence and Military Strength: It has been said that Ashoka’s obsession with non-violence led to the emasculation of the army, making the country vulnerable to invasion.
  • However, Ashoka’s propagation of non-violence did not override other considerations, as is evident from his advice to his sons and grandsons on the use of violence.
  • The edicts do not imply that Ashoka deliberately weakened the military strength of the state by pursuing a policy of non-violence.
• Economic Pressures: The suggestion that the Mauryan economy was under considerable pressure seems more likely as a cause of the empire’s decline.
  • The need for vast revenues to maintain the army and finance the salaries of the upper levels of the bureaucracy could have strained the treasury.
  • Excavation of the Mauryan urban sites points to an expanding economy in the early stages, but debased silver coins in the later period suggest a fiscal crisis.
  • The advice of Kautilya to undertake double-cropping during times of financial need was practiced even before the Mauryan period.
• Fiscal Crisis: Kautilya's advice that virtually every human activity should be taxed has led to suggestions that there was a fiscal crisis.
  • Despite increasing the land under cultivation, there was a record of famine in eastern India, suggesting that the lines of supply were not adequate.
  • This variation in economic conditions across the empire may have prevented an economic equilibrium in the state.
• Political Loyalty: The loyalty to the state increasingly shifted from loyalty to the king, blurring the concept of the state as the monarchy became more reliant on religious orthodoxy.
  • The interdependence of caste and politics led to caste being accorded higher status than political institutions.
  • The divinity of the king was emphasized in brahmanical sources, but the Buddhists and Jainas introduced a contractual concept for the origin of the state.
• State Structure and Decline: The Mauryan imperial system was short-lived compared to other empires due to its centralized bureaucracy.
  • The system of recruitment was arbitrary, with local governors choosing their officers, leading to the monopolization of administrative control.
  • The lack of representative institutions contributed to tensions and instability within the political system.
• Economic Development in the Post-Mauryan Period: As Mauryan control declined, there was a period of local economic development in regions like Gandhara and Kalinga.
  • By the early second century BC, the first experiment in imperial government in India ended, but other experiments would follow in later centuries.
• Ashoka's Legacy: Despite the decline of the empire, Ashoka's commitment to a social ethic remains a unique aspect of his reign, making him a rare figure in Indian and world history.