Learn about the distinct regional styles of Rajasthani Schools of Paintings, including Marwar, Mewar, and other schools that shaped Indian art during the Rajput period.

• Rajasthani Schools of Painting
  • The term refers to the schools of painting from princely kingdoms like Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur, Malwa, Sirohi, and other areas of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
  • Time Period: Predominantly between the sixteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

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  • Anand Coomaraswamy coined the term 'Rajput Paintings' in 1916 to differentiate them from the Mughal School of Painting.
  • The term 'Rajput Schools' is now considered obsolete, replaced by 'Rajasthani' and 'Pahari' classifications.
  • Characteristics of these paintings varied across regions:
    • Execution styles (fine or bold)
    • Preference for colors (brilliant or gentle)
    • Compositional elements (architecture, figures, nature)
    • Modes of narration and naturalism
• Materials and Techniques
  • Paintings were made on waslis, layered handmade paper glued together for thickness.
  • Sketch outlines were done in black or brown, with colors fixed using notations or sample patches.
  • Pigments were derived from minerals and precious metals like gold and silver, mixed with glue.
  • Brushes were made from camel and squirrel hair.
  • Paintings were burnished with agate for uniform sheen and resplendence.
• Artistic Process
  • Teamwork:
    • Master artist handled composition and preliminary drawings.
    • Pupils or experts worked on coloring, portraiture, landscapes, architecture, etc.
    • Master artist applied finishing touches.
  • Scribes added verses in designated spaces.
• Themes of Paintings
  • Bhakti movement themes featuring Rama and Krishna were popular.
    • Krishna depicted as both God and ideal lover.
    • Radha represented the human soul offering devotion to Krishna.
  • Texts inspiring paintings:
    • Gita Govinda: Twelfth-century lyrical poem by Jayadeva depicting Radha and Krishna's mystical love.
    • Rasamanjari: Fourteenth-century Sanskrit text by Bhanu Datta on hero and heroine classifications.
    • Rasikapriya: Composed by Keshav Das in 1591, exploring emotive states of love and relationships.
    • Kavipriya: Also by Keshav Das, focused on love, seasons, and festivals.
    • Bihari Satsai: Seventeenth-century aphorisms and moralistic verses by Bihari Lal, often illustrated in Mewar and Pahari styles.
  • Other themes:
    • Ragamala paintings based on musical ragas and raginis.
    • Bardic legends and romantic tales like Dhola-Maru and Sohni-Mahiwal.
    • Epic and religious texts: Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvata Purana, etc.
    • Depictions of darbar scenes, historical moments, hunting expeditions, festivals, and portraits.

Malwa School of Painting

• Malwa School of Painting
  • The Malwa School flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE and represents the Hindu Rajput courts.
  • Characterized by a two-dimensional simplistic style, it reflects a progression from Jain manuscripts to Chaurpanchashika manuscript paintings.
  • Unlike other Rajasthani schools, the Malwa School does not have a precise territorial center but is linked to a broad region of Central India, including:
    • Mandu
    • Nusratgarh
    • Narsyang Sahar
• Notable Works
  • Amaru Shataka (1652 CE): An illustrated poetic text.
  • Ragamala Painting by Madho Das (1680 CE): A key artwork from this period.
  • A significant collection of Malwa paintings was found in the Datia Palace in Bundelkhand.
• Distinct Features
  • Paintings on paper display two-dimensional austerity.
  • Mural paintings in Datia Palace lack Mughal influence, distinguishing them from works on paper.
  • The absence of:
    • Mention of patron kings.
    • Portraits in the artworks.
    Suggests that paintings were created by traveling artists who sold works on popular themes, such as:
    • Ramayana
    • Bhagvata Purana
    • Amaru Shataka
    • Rasikapriya
    • Ragamala
    • Baramasa
• Context of Indian Painting
  • Mughal School: Dominated Indian art from the sixteenth century, centered in courts like Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, and Lahore.
  • Provincial Mughal Schools: Evolved through a blend of Mughal and local styles under wealthy governors.
  • Deccani School: Flourished in regions like Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, and Hyderabad starting in the sixteenth century.
  • Rajasthani Schools: Gained prominence in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.
  • Pahari School: Emerged in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

Mewar School of Painting

• Mewar School of Painting
  • Mewar is conjectured to be an early centre of painting in Rajasthan, forming a stylistic tradition from pre-seventeenth century indigenous styles to refined styles post-Karan Singh’s contact with the Mughals.
  • Most early examples were lost due to long wars with the Mughals.
  • The emergence of the Mewar School is widely associated with an early set of Ragamala paintings created in 1605 by artist Nisardin at Chawand.
  • This set shares a visual aesthetic with pre-seventeenth century paintings, characterized by:
    • Direct approach
    • Simpler compositions
    • Sporadic decorative details
    • Vibrant colors
• Reign of Jagat Singh I (1628–1652)
  • Pictorial aesthetics were reformulated under the influence of virtuoso artists Sahibdin and Manohar.
  • Sahibdin’s notable works:
    • Ragamala (1628)
    • Rasikapriya
    • Bhagvata Purana (1648)
    • Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana (1652)
  • Manohar’s significant work: Bal Kanda of Ramayana (1649).
  • Jagannath’s unique contribution: Bihari Satsai (1719).
  • Other texts illustrated in the late seventeenth century include Harivamsha and Sursagar.
• Yuddha Kanda by Sahibdin

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  • Yuddha Kanda (Book of Battles) is a part of the Ramayana set, popularly known as the Jagat Singh Ramayana, dated 1652.
  • Sahibdin introduces the use of oblique aerial perspective to depict the scale of war.
  • He uses various narrative techniques, such as:
    • Layering several episodes into a single painting.
    • Spreading a single episode across multiple folios.
  • This painting portrays Indrajit’s use of magic weapons and tactics in battle.
• Art in the Eighteenth Century
  • By the eighteenth century, painting in Mewar shifted away from textual representations and focused more on:
    • Royal court activities
    • Pastimes of the royals
  • Mewar artists began to favor a bright color palette with prominent reds and yellows.
  • Maharana Jagat Singh II’s portrait: A 1744 painting depicting him hawking, now housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
• Nathdwara School of Painting
  • Nathdwara, near Udaipur, emerged as a prominent Vaishnava center and a painting school in the late seventeenth century.
  • Large pichhwais (cloth paintings) were created for the deity Shrinathji, particularly for festive occasions.

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• Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century Themes
  • During the eighteenth century, Mewar painting increasingly became:
    • Secular and courtly in nature.
    • Focused on subjects like:
      • Portraiture
      • Flamboyant court scenes
      • Hunting expeditions
      • Festivals
      • Zenana activities
      • Sports
  • A folio depicting Maharana Jagat Singh II (1734–1752) touring the countryside while hawking features:
    • An oblique view of the landscape.
    • Allows for a panoramic view of the limitless horizon.
    • Complex narration aiming at reportage.

Bundi School of Painting

• Bundi School of Painting: Overview
  • The Bundi School emerged as a prominent center of art in the seventeenth century, known for:
    • Its unblemished color sense.
    • Excellent formal design.
  • Bundi Ragamala (1591), painted at Chunar during the reign of Bhoj Singh (1585–1607), represents its formative phase.
• Key Patrons and Phases of Development
  • Major patrons included:
    • Rao Chattar Sal (1631–1659): Played a significant role in Bundi's art while serving as Governor of Delhi under Shahjahan.
    • Rao Bhao Singh (1659–1682): Promoted self-indulgent portraiture and innovative styles.
    • Aniruddha Singh (1682–1702) and Budh Singh: Encouraged artistic expression despite political upheavals.
    • Umed Singh (1749–1771): Oversaw a phase of refined detail and Deccani aesthetic influence.
  • Under Bishen Singh (1771–1821), hunting themes became prevalent, reflecting his personal interests.
  • During Ram Singh's rule (1821–1889), murals featuring royal processions, hunting, and Krishna stories adorned the Bundi palace's chitrashala.

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• Distinctive Features of Bundi and Kota Schools
  • Renowned for:
    • Lush depictions of vegetation, wildlife, and landscapes.
    • Realistic illustrations of hills, forests, and water bodies.
    • Exquisite equestrian portraits and unmatched drawings of elephants.
  • Artistic portrayal of feminine beauty, characterized by:
    • Petite figures with round faces.
    • Receding foreheads and sharp noses.
    • 'Pinched' waists and full cheeks.
• Bundi Ragamala and Early Artists
  • Bundi Ragamala inscriptions (1591) in Persian identify artists:
    • Shaykh Hasan, Shaykh Ali, and Shaykh Hatim.
    • Mentored by Mughal court masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Khwaja Abddus Samad.
  • Key folios include:
    • Raga Dipak: A nighttime depiction with glowing lamps and intricate storytelling.
    • Other notable ragas: Raginis Khambavati, Bilaval, Malashri, Bhairavi, and Patmanjari.
• Popular Themes in Bundi Paintings
  • Baramasa: Depicts the 12 months based on Keshav Das's Kavipriya, written for the courtesan Rai Parbin of Orchha.
  • Royal activities such as hunting, courtly pastimes, and Krishna legends became prominent in later phases.

Kota School of Painting

• Kota School of Painting
  • The Kota School of Painting emerged as an exceptional tradition influenced by the Bundi school.
  • Key features include:
    • Excellence in depicting hunting scenes and animal chase.
    • An atmosphere of excitement and a passion for wildlife.
• Historical Background
  • Kota was part of the Bundi kingdom until 1625, when Jahangir divided it.
  • The division occurred as a reward for Madhu Singh's bravery in defending Jahangir against his son, Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan).

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  • The Kota school began developing independently around the 1660s during the reign of Jagat Singh (1658–1683).
• Evolution of Style
  • In the early years, the paintings of Bundi and Kota were indistinguishable as Kota artists borrowed heavily from Bundi styles.
  • Differences emerged over time:
    • Non-conformity became apparent in exaggerated figures and architectural designs.
    • Kota's flair for drawing made its style uniquely recognizable.
• Key Developments
  • By Ram Singh I’s reign (1686–1708), Kota artists expanded their subjects, making landscape a focal theme.
  • During Umed Singh's rule (1770–1819), hunting scenes became central due to the king's obsession with wildlife and gaming.
  • Paintings served as records of royal hunting expeditions, sometimes involving court women.
• Characteristics of Kota Painting
  • Spontaneous and calligraphic execution, with emphasis on:
    • Marked shading, especially noticeable in the double-lid eye.
    • Exquisite rendering of animals and combat scenes.
  • Focused depiction of:
    • Lush landscapes as an integral element.
    • Dynamic and action-filled compositions.

Bikaner School of Painting

• Bikaner School of Painting
  • The Bikaner School emerged as a prominent tradition in Rajasthan, founded by Rao Bika Rathore in 1488.
  • Distinctive features include:
    • Influence of Mughal elegance and a subdued color palette.
    • An amalgamation of indigenous and Mughal styles.

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• Historical Development
  • Anup Singh (1669–1698) established a library in Bikaner, fostering manuscript and painting traditions.
  • Notable Mughal artists, such as Ustad Ali Raza, worked in Bikaner from around 1650, marking the school's early development.
• Key Artists and Contributions
  • Ruknuddin, a master artist during Anup Singh’s reign, blended Deccani and Mughal styles with local traditions.
  • Notable works by Ruknuddin:
    • Ramayana
    • Rasikapriya
    • Durga Satpsati
  • Other prominent artists included Ibrahim, Nathu, Sahibdin, and Isa.
• Studio Practices
  • Bikaner studios, called Mandis, were managed by master artists like Ruknuddin, Ibrahim, and Nathu.
  • Key activities in the studios included:
    • Creating new miniatures.
    • Repairing (marammat) and copying (nakals) older works.
    • Final touches by master artists, termed gudarayi or "lifting."
• Unique Features
  • Portraits of artists, referred to as Ustas or Ustad, were inscribed with their ancestry.
  • Ibrahim’s works were known for their:
    • Misty, dreamlike quality.
    • Dainty figures with heavily modeled faces.
  • Exquisite documentation in Marwari and Persian inscriptions provided:
    • Names of artists.
    • Dates and locations of production.
    • Occasions for commissioning artworks.

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• Significance
  • The Bikaner School stands out for its archival richness and distinctive style that blends elegance with tradition.
  • Examples of its art include Baramasa, Ragamala, and Rasikapriya paintings, which showcase the mastery of the Bikaner studios.

Kishangarh School of Painting

• Kishangarh School of Painting
  • Kishangarh miniatures are among the most stylized Rajasthani paintings, known for their exquisite sophistication.
  • Distinctive facial features include:
    • Arched eyebrows.
    • Lotus petal-shaped eyes tinged with pink and drooping eyelids.
    • A sharp, slender nose and thin lips.
• Historical Background
  • Kishan Singh, a son of the king of Jodhpur, founded Kishangarh in 1609.
  • By the mid-17th century, under the patronage of Man Singh (1658–1706), artists were active in the Kishangarh court.
• Key Characteristics
  • A distinct style evolved during the reign of Raj Singh (1706–1748), characterized by:
    • Elongation of the human form.
    • Lavish use of green in paintings.
    • Depiction of panoramic landscapes.
  • With Raj Singh’s association with the Pushtimargiya cult of Vallabhacharya, Krishna Lila themes became central to Kishangarh art.
• Notable Artists and Themes

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  • Sawant Singh’s reign (1735–1757) marked the peak of Kishangarh art, with Nihal Chand as the most celebrated artist.
  • Nihal Chand’s works featured:
    • Radha and Krishna as divine lovers in courtly surroundings.
    • Panoramic landscapes with vivid details and accentuated colors.
    • Illustrations based on Sawant Singh’s poetry.
• Artistic Excellence
  • Kishangarh artists excelled in creating vast, detailed landscapes.
  • Their use of vibrant colors and attention to detail made Kishangarh paintings unique and timeless.

Jodhpur School of Painting

• Jodhpur School of Painting
  • The Jodhpur School reflects a blend of Mughal influence and indigenous folkish styles.
  • Despite Mughal visual aesthetics influencing portraiture and court scenes, the deep-rooted folk traditions resisted dominance and remained prominent in illustrated paintings.

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• Early Works
  • One of the earliest known sets is a Ragamala series painted in Pali by artist Virji in 1623.
• Patronage of Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1638–1678)
  • Jaswant Singh initiated a productive phase in Jodhpur painting during the mid-17th century.
  • Key contributions under his patronage:
    • Documentary paintings focusing on portraiture and court life began around 1640.
    • Numerous portraits of Jaswant Singh survive, showcasing his patronage of art.
    • Influenced by the Vallabha cult of Shrinathji, many Krishna-themed paintings, particularly from the *Bhagvata Purana*, were created.
• Ajit Singh (1679–1724) and the Marwar Revival
  • Ajit Singh became king after a 25-year conflict with Aurangzeb, led by the legendary warrior Veer Durgadas Rathore.
  • Key highlights:
    • Durgadas’s heroism inspired poems and court paintings.
    • Equestrian portraits of Durgadas became popular during this period.
• Man Singh’s Reign (1803–1843): The Last Innovative Phase
  • Significant painting sets from this period include:
    • *Ramayana* (1804), depicting Rama's Ayodhya with local architecture, bazaars, and cultural settings of Jodhpur.
    • *Dhola-Maru*, *Panchatantra* (1804), and *Shiva Purana*.
  • Man Singh’s association with the Nath Sampradaya influenced art, leading to:
    • Paintings featuring Man Singh with Nath gurus.
    • A set of *Nath Charita* painted in 1824.
• Artistic Traditions and Documentation
  • Jodhpur paintings often integrated local architecture, costumes, and cultural aspects into depictions of Krishna, Rama, and other stories.
  • Unlike other schools, inscriptions on Marwar paintings rarely included dates, artist names, or locations until the 19th century.

Jaipur School of Painting

• Jaipur School of Painting
  • The Jaipur School originated in Amer, the former capital of Jaipur, due to its proximity to the Mughal capitals, Agra and Delhi.
  • Jaipur rulers maintained cordial relations with the Mughals, which heavily influenced the aesthetics of the region.
• Early Rulers and Mughal Influence
  • Raja Bharmal (1548–1575) strengthened ties with the Mughals by marrying his daughter to Akbar.
  • His son Bhagwant Das (1575–1592) was a close ally of Akbar, and his grandson, Man Singh, was Akbar's most trusted general.
• Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743) and the Emergence of Jaipur School
  • Sawai Jai Singh, who established Jaipur as a new capital in 1727, played a crucial role in the development of Jaipur School.
  • Under his patronage:

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    • Mughal painters were brought from Delhi to work in his atelier.
    • He invited craftsmen and artists to settle in Jaipur and reorganized the Suratkhana (the place where paintings were made and stored).
    • His strong devotion to the Vaishnavite sect led to the commissioning of numerous Radha and Krishna-themed paintings.
    • Artists painted sets from texts like *Rasikapriya*, *Gita Govinda*, *Baramasa*, and *Ragamala*, with the hero often resembling the king in the artworks.
  • Portrait painting also flourished during his reign, with accomplished portrait painter Sahibram part of his atelier.
• Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743–1750) and His Contributions
  • Sawai Ishwari Singh continued the patronage of art and expanded it by commissioning paintings that depicted royal leisure pursuits.
  • Scenes of elephant rides, boar and tiger hunts, and elephant fights were captured in his time.
• Sawai Madho Singh (1750–1767) and Court Life Depictions
  • Sawai Madho Singh focused on commissioning paintings that depicted incidents from court life.
• Sawai Pratap Singh (1779–1803) and the Reformulated Aesthetic
  • Under Sawai Pratap Singh, the predominant Mughal influence receded, and a new Jaipur style emerged, blending Mughal and indigenous aesthetics.
  • This second thriving period saw Pratap Singh employ around 50 artists to work in his atelier.
  • Pratap Singh was a scholar, poet, prolific writer, and ardent follower of Krishna. His reign saw the renewal of religious and literary themes, such as:
    • *Gita Govinda*
    • *Ragamala*
    • *Bhagvata Purana*
  • Royal portraits and courtly splendor continued to be popular subjects.
• Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Developments
  • By the early 19th century, the use of gold became lavish in Jaipur paintings, with large format and life-size portraits becoming popular.
  • Many artworks were produced by tracing and pouncing techniques, which helped create copies of popular pieces.

Illustrations Scenes from different Paintings

• Illustrating Scenes from the Bhagavata Purana

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  • This painting from the collection of National Museum, New Delhi, depicts the killing of the demon Shaktasura by Lord Krishna (1680–1690).
  • It is a typical example of Malwa style, where the space is carefully compartmentalized to narrate different scenes of the episode.
  • Scenes from the episode include:
    • Celebrations and festivities in the house of Nanda and Yashoda after Krishna's birth (lower left and upper middle sections).
    • Nanda and Yashoda are seen donating cows and calves to Brahmins and well-wishers (middle left and extreme right sections).
    • Delicious food is being prepared (central section).
    • Women hover over baby Krishna to safeguard him from the evil eye (upper left section).
  • The narrative concludes with Krishna toppling the cart demon, Shakatasura, with a gentle kick.
• Maru Ragini from Mewar

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  • This Ragamala painting is significant for its documentary evidence, featuring the artist Sahibdin and the patron Rana Shri Jagat Singh of Udaipur.
  • It depicts the consort of Raga Shri, Maru, as represented in the popular Dhola-Maru ballad.
  • The painting shows Dhola and Maru escaping together on a camel, symbolizing their struggle to unite amidst trials and tribulations.
• Equestrian Portrait of Aniruddha Singh

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  • This painting, attributed to artist Tulchi Ram and created in 1680, portrays Prince Aniruddha Singh on horseback.
  • It represents speed and motion by focusing on the horse galloping so high that the ground is not visible.
  • The painting is inscribed with the names of both Aniruddha Singh and Bharat Singh.
• Chaugan Play (Polo) by Dana

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  • Depicts a princess playing polo with companions, made by artist Dana during the reign of Man Singh of Jodhpur (1810).
  • The painting exhibits stylistic influences from various schools, including Mughal, Deccani, Bundi, and Kishangarh.
  • The painting is inscribed with a line that translates to, “Beautiful maidens on horseback, playing.”
• Krishna Swinging and Radha Sad Moo by Nuruddin

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  • This painting, created in 1683, illustrates the Rasikapriya and is attributed to the artist Nuruddin, who worked in Bikaner.
  • The composition features Krishna on a swing with a Gopi, while Radha, stricken with grief, disappears into the countryside.
  • Radha’s sakhi (friend) plays the role of a messenger, urging Krishna to reconcile with Radha.
• Bani Thani by Nihal Chand

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  • The painting of Bani Thani is attributed to artist Nihal Chand, depicting Radha in the unique and exaggerated Kishangarh style.
  • Bani Thani was the muse for poetry composed by Sawant Singh, who was deeply in love with her.
  • Her distinctive facial features—sharp eyes, arched eyebrows, and pointed nose—became the hallmark of Kishangarh art.
• Rama Meets Members of his Family in Ramayana by Guman
  • This painting, created between 1740 and 1750, is a continuous narrative from the Ramayana.

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  • It portrays the episode where Bharat, after the passing of King Dashratha, persuades Rama to return to Ayodhya.
  • The narrative unfolds from left to right, showing various interactions between Rama, his family, and sages in a rural setting.