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Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns, primarily caused by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels. While climate naturally changes over time, current trends—especially global warming—are occurring at an accelerated rate due to increased greenhouse gas emissions.
Scientists in the 19th century began to understand Earth’s climate system. In 1824, Joseph Fourier proposed that the atmosphere traps heat (the nascent greenhouse effect). Later, 1856 experiments by Eunice Newton Foote showed that air with water vapor and CO2 warmed more than dry air. Mid-century, physicist John Tyndall measured infrared absorption of gases, confirming that even trace amounts of water vapor and carbon dioxide strongly absorb heat. These studies established that small changes in atmospheric greenhouse gases could alter climate. Geologists also identified past ice ages (e.g. Agassiz’s glaciers) which, along with ice core research, laid the groundwork for understanding long-term climate variation.
Early pioneers quantified the heating effect of gases. Fourier’s 1824 insight started the field. In 1859, Tyndall showed that CO2 and methane (CH4) capture heat, while the main air components (N2, O2) do not. Tyndall concluded that small concentrations of greenhouse gases have a significant warming role. These discoveries laid the scientific foundation for modern understanding of climate change.
In 1856, American scientist Eunice Foote demonstrated experimentally that glass bulbs filled with CO2 or water vapor warmed more under sunlight than dry air. Her results indicated that increased water vapor and CO2 cause more heat retention. This was one of the earliest lab demonstrations of the greenhouse effect, confirming that atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration affects temperature.
Building on these findings, Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius in 1896 performed the first calculations of how changing CO2 alters climate. He showed that doubling atmospheric CO2 could raise global temperatures by several degrees. Arrhenius’s model was the first to quantitatively link CO2 to global warming, foreseeing anthropogenic climate change from fossil fuels. His work established the fundamental concept of climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases.
In parallel, scientists in the early 1800s recognized past climate extremes. The discovery of the Ice Ages (first proposed by Louis Agassiz) and glacial geology showed that Earth’s climate has changed dramatically over time. These paleoclimate studies underscored that natural factors (orbital cycles, volcanic activity) can swing climate. This historical perspective eventually provided context for human-induced changes, showing that modern warming must be considered alongside natural climate variability.
By the late 19th century, then, the science community understood that Earth’s atmosphere could trap heat via a greenhouse effect caused by gases like CO2. These foundational discoveries set the stage for the 20th century’s focus on whether human activities were perturbing the climate beyond natural bounds.
In the 20th century, climate science moved from theory to measurable evidence. During the 1950s-1960s, researchers refined climate data and models. Notably, starting in 1958, Charles Keeling conducted precise measurements of atmospheric CO2 at Hawaii’s Mauna Loa Observatory. Keeling’s data unequivocally showed rising CO2 levels linked to fossil fuel use. His long-term record (the Keeling Curve) continues today and remains the world’s longest continuous CO2 record. In 1967, scientists Syukuro Manabe and Richard Wetherald built the first realistic global climate model, predicting that doubling CO2 would warm Earth by ~2°C. Observations since 1880 (CO2 +50%, temperature +1.1°C) align with that early projection. These advances—empirical data and computerized models—firmly established that rising greenhouse gases would drive warming.
Starting in 1958, chemist C. D. Keeling took daily measurements of CO2 in the atmosphere. He proved unambiguously that CO2 was climbing year after year due to fossil fuel combustion. Keeling’s work was so influential that it is called one of the 20th century’s most important scientific achievements. His record now shows CO2 has risen by roughly 50% since pre-industrial times, underscoring the human impact on the carbon cycle.
In 1967, researchers Manabe and Wetherald developed the first comprehensive computer model of Earth’s climate. By simulating atmosphere, ocean, and radiation, they quantified how greenhouse gases alter temperature. They found that a doubling of CO2 would raise the average surface temperature by ~2°C. Remarkably, this estimate matches modern observations: from the 1880s to today CO2 rose ~50% and global temperature ~1.1°C. This early modeling confirmed that anthropogenic emissions are capable of shifting climate substantially.
Growing evidence led the UN to organize global assessments. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988 by the UN Environment Programme and WMO to synthesize climate science for policymakers. Its First Assessment Report (1990) reaffirmed the human-driven greenhouse effect, setting the stage for climate treaty talks. In December 1995, the IPCC’s Second Assessment famously concluded that “the balance of evidence suggests there is a discernible human influence on global climate”. Subsequent IPCC reports (2001, 2007, 2014, 2021) have only strengthened this consensus. By the late 20th century, the scientific community uniformly agreed that global warming was real and predominantly caused by humans.
Even before IPCC, international scientific meetings raised alarm. Notably, in 1979 the First World Climate Conference in Geneva formally acknowledged that human activities could disrupt climate. It urged nations to “foresee and prevent potential man-made changes in climate” and led to a coordinated World Climate Programme. The 1990 Second World Climate Conference called for a global treaty and endorsed principles like equity and precaution (foreshadowing later UN conventions). These scientific forums galvanized awareness that climate change was a critical issue requiring global action.
Together, mid- to late-20th-century research provided overwhelming evidence of warming and human causation. Instruments and models matured, leading to a firm scientific foundation that climate change is real, significant, and largely anthropogenic.
At the 1992 UN “Earth Summit” in Rio de Janeiro, representatives of 154 countries signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC, which took effect in 1994, established the goal of preventing “dangerous anthropogenic interference” with the climate system. It created the Conference of the Parties (COP) to oversee implementation. The Rio Convention also produced related accords (Agenda 21, Convention on Biodiversity, etc.) and set a precedent for global cooperation on environmental issues.
The Kyoto Protocol (adopted at COP3 in Kyoto) was the first legally binding climate treaty. It committed 37 industrialized nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to an average of ~5% below 1990 levels by 2008–2012. Negotiated in December 1997 and entering into force in February 2005, the Protocol operationalized the UNFCCC’s objectives. It also codified the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”, meaning wealthy countries bear greater climate obligations. Kyoto introduced market mechanisms (carbon credits and emissions trading) to help achieve targets.
At COP21 in Paris (Dec 2015), 196 parties adopted the Paris Agreement, a landmark treaty in climate governance. For the first time, all nations agreed to limit global warming “well below 2°C” and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. The Agreement entered into force on 4 Nov 2016. Unlike Kyoto, it binds every country to submit and update national climate plans (NDCs) every five years. Significantly, Paris “for the first time” brought all nations together in a binding effort against climate change. The accord also boosted climate finance, technology sharing, and adaptation support, especially for vulnerable countries.
Since Paris, successive COP meetings have sought to ramp up ambition. For example, COP24 (Katowice 2018) finalized the rulebook for Paris, COP26 (Glasgow 2021) saw major economies pledge net-zero goals, and COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh 2022) agreed on a fund for loss-and-damage. Meanwhile, regional blocs and coalitions (like the EU Green Deal, the Powering Past Coal Alliance, etc.) implement climate policies. These forums underscore the evolving global response: each year’s climate summit strives to enhance emissions commitments, adaptation plans, and financing in line with the science-driven goals of the Paris era.
Overall, the international political response evolved from a basic framework (UNFCCC) to binding targets (Kyoto) to universal ambition (Paris) and beyond. These agreements reflect a growing, if uneven, global consensus on the need to act on climate change.
Analyses by economists have quantified the cost of action versus inaction. The influential Stern Review (2006) concluded that stringent early climate action would be far less expensive than suffering the unchecked impacts. Specifically, it warned that without mitigation, climate damages could cost at least 5% of global GDP annually (and up to 20%). By contrast, limiting warming might require about 1% of GDP per year in mitigation costs. This work popularized the view that investing now yields net economic benefits. It also noted that climate change disproportionately affects sectors like agriculture, health and infrastructure. Such economic assessments inform national policies on carbon pricing, subsidies, and adaptation investments.
Market-based instruments have become key tools. The Kyoto Protocol introduced carbon credit trading and joint implementation. Regionally, the European Union established the world’s first large-scale carbon market, the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), in 2005. Under cap-and-trade schemes like the EU ETS, factories and power plants must hold permits for their emissions. Governments also impose carbon taxes in places (e.g. Scandinavia, Canada) to internalize climate costs. These mechanisms create financial incentives to reduce emissions. Additionally, initiatives like REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation) and voluntary carbon offsets tie economic value to land use and technology choices. In essence, carbon pricing makes polluting activities more costly, thereby spurring clean innovation.
Technological progress has greatly expanded clean energy. Wind and solar power have grown exponentially, aided by rapidly falling costs. For example, in 2023 solar PV accounted for roughly 70% of all new renewable electricity capacity worldwide. Today “non-bioenergy” renewables (mainly solar, wind, hydro) produce almost 30% of global electricity. Batteries, energy storage, smart grids, and electric vehicles are also maturing. Governments and corporations invest heavily in these technologies: policies like the EU’s Green Deal, the US Inflation Reduction Act, and China’s renewable energy targets aim to scale clean tech. Research on advanced solutions (carbon capture, green hydrogen, geoengineering) is also expanding. Together, these economic and technological trends are reshaping energy systems away from fossil fuels.
The global economy has long been linked to fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas), creating political and social challenges. For decades, major energy companies and some governments downplayed climate science or resisted regulations, influencing policy debates. Only recently have many oil and auto companies embraced net-zero emissions goals. Climate change also creates economic risks: extreme weather disrupts supply chains and agriculture, and sea-level rise threatens coastal infrastructure. Concepts like the “Green New Deal” and just transition policies arise from the need to balance economic costs and benefits. For example, transition plans in coal-dependent regions or climate finance for developing countries illustrate attempts to manage the economic impact of decarbonization while pursuing sustainable growth.
In summary, climate change is as much an economic and technological issue as a scientific one. Market reforms (carbon pricing, emissions trading) and green investments are now integral parts of climate strategy, driven by analyses that emphasize long-term savings from early action.
Grassroots and social movements have played a crucial role in climate awareness. Notably, the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970 mobilized about 20 million Americans in protests for clean air and water. By Earth Day 1990, the event had gone global: ~200 million people in 141 countries participated, giving momentum to international policy (it helped pave the way for the 1992 Rio Summit). In 2010, the 40th anniversary Earth Day engaged nearly 1,000,000,000 people worldwide in climate and conservation actions. More recently, youth-led movements have surged: for example, in September 2019 climate activist Greta Thunberg reported that over 3 million people in dozens of countries joined global climate strikes. These demonstrations and campaigns keep pressure on leaders and increase public support for climate solutions.
Climate change raises major ethical and social justice issues. Developing countries, often with low historical emissions, face greater harm from extreme weather and sea-level rise. The principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” was incorporated into the Kyoto framework, recognizing that wealthy nations must do more. Concepts like climate justice emphasize that those most vulnerable (indigenous peoples, low-income communities) deserve priority in adaptation and loss-recovery. Socially, this intersects with issues of race, gender, and economic inequality (e.g., marginalized groups tend to suffer first and worst from pollution and disasters). Debates over carbon markets also involve equity: how to ensure fair access and not burden the poor. International negotiations often include discussions of financial support (such as the Green Climate Fund) to help poorer nations adapt, illustrating how climate policy is bound up with global inequality and human rights concerns.
Widespread understanding of climate science has been shaped by education and media. Documentaries (e.g. *An Inconvenient Truth*, 2006) and news coverage have brought climate issues to living rooms. Social media campaigns (#ActOnClimate) and celebrity advocates (e.g., Leonardo DiCaprio) help spread the message to younger audiences. Schools and universities now commonly teach climate topics, and major newspapers regularly report on climate-related events. Art, literature, and film increasingly tackle climate themes, reflecting it in culture. Public opinion has steadily shifted: polls now show majorities in many countries recognize global warming and support action. This cultural engagement is critical, as broad societal understanding and acceptance of climate science underpin democratic support for policies and lifestyle changes.
Overall, climate change is deeply embedded in society. It influences public health, migration, economics and security. Social research on perception and communication is now a robust field. Grassroots solutions (community renewable projects, urban planning) show how local culture adapts to climate goals. The social dimension ensures climate change is not only a technical problem, but also one of values, behavior, and collective decision-making.
In the 21st century, almost all governments have announced climate targets. The Paris framework encouraged each country to set its own goals (NDCs). By 2021, the world’s largest emitters (EU, US, China, India, etc.) pledged to achieve net-zero emissions by mid-century. Numerous countries have passed climate laws and are updating their emissions plans. International alliances target specific issues: for example, the 2015 Powering Past Coal Alliance and the 2020 announcement of methane reduction partnerships. Major policy proposals, like the European Green Deal or U.S. clean energy plans, aim to align national economies with Paris goals. These commitments reflect a global acknowledgment of climate urgency, even though implementation and ambition levels vary widely.
Cutting-edge science and technology play an increasing role. Research on negative-emission technologies (bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, direct air capture) aims to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Renewable energy innovation continues: perovskite solar cells, offshore wind farms, and grid-scale batteries are evolving. Digital tools (AI, satellite monitoring) improve climate modeling and help track deforestation or methane leaks. Even agriculture is innovating (precision farming, methane-reducing cattle feed). These emerging technologies offer hope for achieving climate targets and adapting to changes. However, scaling them responsibly requires regulations, public acceptance, and equitable access.
Despite progress, climate challenges remain acute. Recent years have seen record-breaking heatwaves, wildfires, and storms, demonstrating that impacts are intensifying faster than some projections. Climate scientists warn of tipping points (e.g. polar ice melt) if warming exceeds critical thresholds. Economists estimate adaptation needs in poor countries reach trillions of dollars annually. The COVID-19 pandemic briefly cut emissions, but also highlighted the need for resilience. Importantly, analyses show that to have a chance of staying under 1.5°C, global emissions must fall sharply by 2030 (dozens of COP decisions now emphasize 2030 targets). This has led to concepts like “rapid decarbonization” and “climate emergency” actions. The next decades will test whether commitments translate into real cuts: fossil fuel phase-out, lifestyle changes, infrastructure overhaul and international solidarity. Global events like COP conferences and the UN Sustainable Development Goals continue to integrate climate as a core component of policy agendas, reflecting the recognition that climate action is essential for humanity’s future.
In sum, the history of climate change is a journey from Fourier’s 1824 greenhouse discovery to today’s worldwide climate treaties and innovations. Scientific understanding, political will, economic tools, and social movements have all evolved in tandem. The decades ahead will determine if this collective effort succeeds in preventing the worst impacts of climate change, steering us toward a sustainable and resilient global society.