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Harshavardhana, also known as Harsha, ascended the throne of Thanesar and later Kannauj, uniting a significant portion of northern India after the decline of the Gupta Empire. His reign (606-647 AD) was characterized by efficient administration, patronage of arts and literature, and religious tolerance, favoring both Buddhism and Hinduism. He maintained diplomatic relations with China, and his court was a center of intellectual and cultural activity. His empire extended from Punjab in the north to the Narmada River in the south, and from Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east.
Hiuen Tsiang (Xuanzang), a renowned Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar, visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana. His 17-year stay (629-645 AD) was dedicated to studying Buddhist scriptures at Nalanda University and other centers of learning. His detailed travelogue, "Si-Yu-Ki" (Records of the Western Regions), provides invaluable insights into the political, social, religious, and economic conditions of 7th-century India, including descriptions of cities, monastic life, and the court of Harsha.
In 711-712 AD (not 761), Muhammad bin Qasim, an Arab general, led the first significant Muslim invasion of the Indian subcontinent, conquering the Sindh region. This invasion marked the beginning of Islamic influence in India and the establishment of Arab rule in parts of present-day Pakistan. The conquest was facilitated by internal conflicts within the ruling Hindu dynasty of Sindh and laid the groundwork for future Muslim incursions.
Adi Shankaracharya, a highly influential Hindu philosopher and theologian, was born in Kaladi, Kerala. He is credited with consolidating the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, a school of Hindu philosophy that emphasizes the non-dual nature of reality. He established four major monastic centers (mathas) at Sringeri, Puri, Dwarka, and Badrinath, which continue to be important centers of Hindu learning. His commentaries on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras remain foundational texts in Hindu philosophy.
Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I, a Rashtrakuta king, ruled over the Deccan region for an exceptionally long period (814-878 AD). He was known for his patronage of arts and literature, particularly Kannada literature. His work "Kavirajamarga" is considered the earliest available Kannada literary work. He was also known for his religious tolerance and his dedication to peace and stability in his kingdom.
Mahmud of Ghazni, a Turkic ruler from present-day Afghanistan, launched a series of raids into India between 1000 and 1027 AD. His primary objective was to plunder the wealth of Indian temples and kingdoms. His most famous raid was the sack of the Somnath Temple in Gujarat in 1025-1026 AD. These invasions had significant economic and political consequences, weakening Indian kingdoms and leaving a lasting impact on the region's history.
Alberuni, a Persian scholar and polymath, accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni during his invasions of India. He spent several years in India, studying its culture, science, and religion. His comprehensive work, "Tarikh Al-Hind" (Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li-l-Hind), provides a detailed and objective account of 11th-century India, covering various aspects of Indian society, including philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, and social customs.
The 11th and 12th centuries saw the rise and fall of several powerful dynasties in India. The Chandelas of Khajuraho were known for their magnificent temples. The Chola Empire in South India reached its zenith, known for its naval power and architectural achievements like the Brihadeeswarar Temple. The Kadambas and Rashtrakutas also played significant roles in shaping the political and cultural landscape of their respective regions, contributing to the rich tapestry of medieval Indian history.
Vikramaditya VI, a prominent ruler of the Kalyani Chalukya Empire, introduced the Vikrama Chalukya Era (Vikramanka Era) in 1076 AD. His reign (1076-1126 AD) marked the peak of the empire, witnessing significant advancements in architecture, literature, and governance. The empire was known for its patronage of scholars and poets, and its architectural style influenced later dynasties in the Deccan region.
The First Battle of Tarain was fought between Muhammad Ghori, a Ghurid ruler, and Prithvi Raj Chauhan III, the Rajput ruler of Ajmer and Delhi. Prithvi Raj Chauhan III emerged victorious, forcing Muhammad Ghori to retreat. This battle was a crucial moment in the struggle for control of northern India.
The Second Battle of Tarain, fought between the same adversaries, resulted in the defeat and capture of Prithvi Raj Chauhan III. This decisive victory for Muhammad Ghori paved the way for the establishment of Muslim rule in northern India and marked a turning point in Indian history.
Following his victory at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj in the Battle of Chandawar. This victory further consolidated Ghurid control over northern India and weakened the remaining Rajput kingdoms. Jayachandra's defeat was crucial for establishing the Delhi Sultanate.
Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant and traveler, visited India during his extensive travels in Asia. His accounts of India, documented in "The Travels of Marco Polo," provided Europeans with valuable insights into the wealth, trade, and culture of the subcontinent. His descriptions of Indian cities, ports, and trade routes influenced European perceptions of India and stimulated interest in trade with the East.
Alauddin Khilji, a powerful ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, established the Khilji Dynasty. His reign (1296-1316 AD) was marked by extensive military conquests, including the subjugation of Gujarat, Ranthambore, and Chittor. He implemented significant administrative and economic reforms, including market regulations and price controls. His military campaigns and administrative policies had a profound impact on the Delhi Sultanate.
The Vijayanagar Empire, founded by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, flourished as a major South Indian kingdom. Its capital, Vijayanagara (Hampi), was a center of art, architecture, and commerce. The empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya, known for his military prowess and patronage of arts and literature. The empire's architectural achievements, including the Virupaksha Temple and the Vittala Temple, are testaments to its grandeur. The empire declined after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 AD.
Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, reached Calicut (Kozhikode) in 1498 AD, opening a direct sea route from Europe to India. This voyage marked the beginning of European colonial influence in India and the establishment of Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean trade. It led to the establishment of Portuguese trading posts and colonies along the Indian coast, initiating a new era of maritime trade and political interaction between Europe and India.