Overview:
- Debate among historians about economic situation: stagnation/decline vs. continued prosperity.
- India's trade with the West unaffected by the fall of the Roman Empire.
- Trade expansion with Byzantine and Sassanid Empires; rise of Arab trade.
- Continued inflow of gold and silver into India despite absence of gold coins for currency.
- Growth of agriculture, construction of bunds and wells, expansion of cultivation.
- Decline of long-distance trade within India, affecting trade guilds and shrenis.
- Emergence of small towns catering to local trade.
- Travel bans beyond India proper not seriously enforced, with active Indian participation in overseas trade.
- Brisk trade between South India, Southeast Asia, and China from the sixth century onwards.
- Indian merchants organized in guilds like Manigramam and Nandesi.
- Cultural exchange: Indian traders, priests introduced Hinduism and Buddhism in Southeast Asia.
- Main Indian port for Southeast Asia trade: Tamralipti (Tamluk) in Bengal.
- Overland trade with China via Tibet, shifting to maritime routes due to changing political dynamics.
- Growing presence of Indian traders in Persian Gulf and Red Sea areas.
Urban Centers and Society
Overview:
- Regional character of urban centers in North India.
- Traders, artisans organized into guilds with administrative roles.
- Growing hierarchy of castes and sub-castes; each craft classified as a separate caste.
- Introduction of foreigners into the caste system, emergence of new Rajput castes.
- Movement within caste hierarchy: Sanskritization.
- Hypergamy: inter-caste marriages for social mobility.
Education and Learning
Overview:
- Active participation of Brahmans, Jains, Buddhists, and Arabs in learning.
- Translation and transmission of Indian works on mathematics, medicine, and astronomy to the Arab world.
- Main centers of learning: Benaras, Nalanda, Vikramasila, Mithila, Deccan, and South India.
- Study subjects: Vedic learning, logic, grammar, literature, mathematics, and medicine.
- Rajsekhara's account of primary schools in every village, middle schools in important villages.
- Rise of regional languages and literatures: bhakti hymns and saint lives.
- Development of Tamil literature; beginnings of literary activity in Bengali, Assamese, and Oriya.
Conclusion
Summary:
- Period from 800 to 1200 witnessed significant economic, social, and cultural developments.
- Flourishing internal and external trade despite political upheavals.
- Growth in urban centers and further elaboration of the caste system.
- Spread of education beyond traditional Brahmanical fold.
- Emergence of regional languages and literatures, laying foundations for linguistic and literary diversity in India.
The Caste System
Overview:
- The caste system was an ancient social structure in India.
- It organized society into four main varnas: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
- Each varna had distinct roles and responsibilities.
- The system also included sub-castes based on occupation and regional differences.
Brahmans and Rajputs:
- Brahmans held high social status as priests and scholars.
- They received large-scale revenue-free lands and held key administrative positions.
- Rajputs emerged as warrior clans, claiming Kshatriya status through alliances and military prowess.
- The caste system exhibited flexibility with social mobility and the emergence of new castes.
Shudras, Dalits, and Slaves:
- Shudras were primarily agricultural laborers and artisans, with varied social status.
- Dalits faced severe social discrimination, performing menial tasks.
- Slavery existed, with rules for emancipation based on service and circumstances.
Condition of Women
Overview:
- Women in ancient India faced inferior social position compared to men.
- Their lives were regulated by male relatives, with limited educational opportunities.
- Practices like child marriage and sati were prevalent among some communities.
Marriage Practices and Rights:
- Marriage was arranged by families, often at a young age.
- Women had limited rights to inherit property, varying across regions and social classes.
Dress, Food, and Amusements
Overview:
- Traditional attire included dhoti and sari, with variations for different social classes.
- Ornamentation was popular among both men and women.
- Vegetarianism was common, with occasional consumption of meat during festivals.
Amusements:
- Popular pastimes included fairs, festivals, and wrestling bouts.
- The society enjoyed activities like animal fights and gardening excursions.
Education, Science, and Religious Learning
Overview:
- Education was primarily vocational, focused on practical skills for livelihood.
- Centers of learning like Nalanda and Taxila provided higher education in philosophy, astronomy, and political science.
- Religious learning included study of Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas.
Science and Mathematics:
- Advances were made in medicine, mathematics, and astronomy.
- Indian knowledge systems influenced neighboring regions.
Religious Movements and Beliefs
Overview:
- India witnessed diverse religious movements and philosophical beliefs.
- Major religions included Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
- Buddhism emerged as a prominent religion, emphasizing the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
- Jainism preached non-violence (ahimsa) and asceticism.
- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu founded the Bhakti movement, promoting devotion to Krishna.
- Kabir and Guru Nanak spread ideas of unity and social harmony.
Notable Figures:
- Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) - Founder of Buddhism, known for his teachings on suffering and enlightenment.
- Mahavira - Founder of Jainism, preached principles of non-violence and spiritual purity.
- Adi Shankara - Philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.
- Kabir - Mystic poet who blended elements of Hinduism and Islam.
- Guru Nanak - Founder of Sikhism, preached monotheism and equality.
Influence on Society:
- Religious movements promoted social equality and challenged caste discrimination.
- They fostered literary and artistic achievements, influencing cultural practices.
- Akbar (the Great) promoted religious tolerance and cultural synthesis.
- Aurobindo Ghosh advocated spiritual evolution and integral yoga.
Hindu Revival and Decline of Buddhism and Jainism
Overview:
- Hinduism saw a revival and expansion during this period, while Buddhism and Jainism faced decline.
- Buddhist and Jain monks were occasionally persecuted, and some of their temples were taken over or converted.
- Instances include the conversion of the Puri and temple near Qutub Minar from Buddhist and Jain origins to Hindu.
- Despite challenges, Buddhism continued in eastern India under the patronage of Pala rulers.
Internal Developments in Buddhism:
- Buddhist practices became more ritualistic and included mystical elements like mantras and austerities.
- This shift led to the belief in attaining supernatural powers through rituals and secret rites.
- Similar practices were adopted by Hindu yogis like Gorakhnath, who attracted followers from lower castes.
Jainism:
- Jainism remained popular among trading communities and received patronage from rulers like the Chalukyas and Paramaras.
- Magnificent Jain temples, such as the Dilwara temple at Mt. Abu, were built during this period.
- Jainism reached its peak in South India during the ninth and tenth centuries.
- The Jain doctrine of the four gifts and royal patronage contributed to its popularity.
Revival of Hinduism:
- Hinduism expanded with Siva and Vishnu becoming primary deities and the construction of grand temples.
- Local gods and goddesses were assimilated into Hinduism, reflecting a process of cultural synthesis.
- The rise of Siva and Vishnu worship signified cultural integration amidst societal disintegration.
Bhakti Movement and Lingayat/Virashaiva Movement
Bhakti Movement:
- Led by saints known as Nayanmars and Alvars in South India, the Bhakti movement emphasized love and devotion to Siva and Vishnu.
- It rejected formal worship in favor of a personal bond between devotee and deity, using Tamil as the language of worship.
- Bhakti saints disregarded caste inequalities, opening the path of devotion to all, including lower castes.
- Bhakti movement attracted followers from Buddhism, Jainism, and tribal communities into Hinduism.
Lingayat/Virashaiva Movement:
- Founded by Basava and Channabasava in Karnataka, the Lingayat movement worshipped Siva and opposed the caste system.
- It rejected rituals like fasts and pilgrimages, advocated social reforms like widow remarriage, and welcomed all irrespective of caste.
- The movement contributed to social equality and challenged Brahmanical authority.
Philosophical Contributions: Sankara and Ramanuja
Sankara:
- Sankara, born in Kerala, founded Advaita Vedanta, a philosophy of non-dualism where God and the created world are one.
- He upheld the Vedas as sources of true knowledge and promoted devotion to God as a path to salvation.
- Sankara's philosophy influenced intellectual circles but did not widely impact the masses.
Ramanuja:
- Ramanuja assimilated Bhakti into Vedic tradition, emphasizing the grace of God and the path of surrender (prapatti).
- He opened the path of salvation to all, including lower castes, bridging the gap between Bhakti movements and Vedic orthodoxy.
- Ramanuja's teachings spread widely, influencing later thinkers and making Bhakti accessible to all sections of Hindu society.
