Explore the rich literary and artistic traditions of medieval India, including Sanskrit literature, Arabic and Persian influences, regional languages, and fine arts like music. Discover the contributions of these cultures to India's artistic heritage.

Sanskrit Literature: Enduring Tradition and New Developments

Sanskrit continued to be a vehicle for higher thought and a medium for literature.

• Immense production of works in Sanskrit, greater than in the preceding period.
• Works in philosophy by Ramanuja, Madhava, Vallabha, etc., written in Sanskrit.
• Network of specialized schools and academies in different parts of the country.
• Introduction of paper helped reproduce and disseminate older texts.
• Works in poetical narrative, drama, fiction, medicine, astronomy, music, etc., continued to be written.
• Commentaries and digests on Hindu law (Dharmashastras) were prepared between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries.
• Significant contributors include Vijnaneshwar and Chandeshwar of Bihar.
• The Jains, particularly Hemachandra Suri, also contributed to Sanskrit literature.
• Limited translation of Islamic works or Persian literature into Sanskrit.
• Notable translations include the love story of Yusuf and Zulaikha and works on the astrolabe.

Arabic and Persian Literature: A Blend of Cultures and Intellectual Pursuits

The greatest amount of literature and scientific works produced by the Muslims was in Arabic.

• Arabic remained confined to Islamic scholars and philosophers.
• Some works on science and astronomy translated from Arabic.
• Persian became the literary and administrative language of Central Asia from the tenth century onwards.
• Notable Persian writers include Masud Sad Salman and Amir Khusrau.
• Amir Khusrau's works showed love for India and contributed to the cultural rapprochement.
• Development of a strong school of history writing in Persian.
• Famous historians include Ziauddin Barani, Afif, and Isami.
• Persian helped develop close cultural relations with Central Asia and Iran.
• Persian became the language of administration and diplomacy, influencing the upper classes.
• Notable translations into Persian include Sanskrit stories, works on medicine, music, and historical texts like Rajatarangini.

Regional Languages: A Rise in Vernacular Literature

Literary works of high quality were produced in many regional languages.

• Languages like Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi trace their origins back to the eighth century.
• Early saints and Bhakti poets used common languages for literary purposes.
• Use of regional languages in administration continued under Turkish rule.
• Development of literature in Telugu, Marathi, and other languages under regional patronage.
• Muslim kings later patronized regional languages for literary purposes.
• Examples include translations of Mahabharata and Ramayana into Bengali by Nusrat Shah of Bengal.
• Sufi saints like Malik Muhammad Jaisi wrote in Hindi, promoting Sufi concepts.

Fine Arts: A Fusion of Musical Traditions

Trends towards mutual understanding and integration are found in fine arts, particularly music.

• The Turks brought new musical instruments and modes, enriching Indian music.
• Amir Khusrau introduced many Perso-Arabic airs (ragas) and is credited with inventing the sitar.
• Indian classical work Ragadarpan translated into Persian during Firuz Shah's reign.
• Musical gatherings spread from Sufi abodes to noble palaces.
• Sultan Husain Sharqi and Raja Man Singh of Gwaliyar were notable patrons of music.
• Distinctive style of music influenced by Persian music developed in Kashmir.
• Sikandar Lodi followed the tradition of patronizing music on a lavish scale.