Explore the Sangam Age and the powerful Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties. Learn about their administration, trade, literature, cultural contributions, and influence on South Indian history.

Chera Dynasty History in Kerala - Ancient Tamil Kingdom

• Introduction to the Chera Dynasty and Their Legacy

  The Chera Dynasty ruled over parts of modern Kerala during the Sangam period. Their capital was Vanji, and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. The emblem of the Cheras was the Bow and Arrow.

  The Chera kings were also known as “Keralaputas” (sons of Kerala).

• Early Chera Kings During the Sangam Period

  • Uthiyan Cheralathan – The earliest known Chera ruler, ruling from Kuzhumur in Kuttanad, Kerala.
  • Kulasekhara Alwar – The first king of the later Chera kingdom, initiating the Kulasekhara dynasty.
  • After a gap of five centuries, Kulasekhara Alwar re-emerged around 800 AD, ruling from Tiruvanchikkulam for over 20 years.
  • The throne later passed to Ramavarma, also known as Kulasekhara Perumal, Ramar Tiruvati, or Kulasekhara Koyiladhikarikal. His reign was marked by political turmoil and insecurity.

• Famous Chera Rulers and Their Contributions to Tamil Culture

  • Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan
  • Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan
  • Cheran Senguttuvan – A 2nd-century AD ruler known for his military expeditions to the Himalayas, defeating many North Indian monarchs. He introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.

• Historical Sources and Sangam Literature on Chera Dynasty

  Information about the Cheras primarily comes from the Sangam Literature, including:

  • Pathitrupattu
  • Akananuru
  • Purananuru

• Later Chera Kingdom History - Rise and Expansion

  The Chera Kingdom regained significance in the 9th century AD under King Alwar Kulasekhara Varman, who succeeded his father Thidaviradhan in 800 AD. He established the Second Chera Kingdom with Mahodayapuram as its capital.

  Despite founding a new kingdom, his influence was limited by Aryan-Brahmin settlements and hereditary chieftains called Naduvazhis.

• Political Alliances of the Chera Dynasty with Cholas and Pandyas

  • Allied with the Cholas against the Pallavas
  • Allied with the Pandyas against the Cholas during the 8th-10th centuries AD
  • Later supported the Pandyas and the Lambakannas of Sri Lanka against the rising Chola power

• Chera Dynasty Administration and Governance System

  • The king was the supreme authority, but a council of ministers and learned advisors limited his power.
  • Daily durbar sessions allowed commoners to present their grievances.
  • Village assemblies called Manram managed local governance, dispute settlement, and festivals.
  • The collateral succession system ensured the eldest family member became king.

• Religion and Beliefs During the Chera Dynasty Period

  • Native Dravidian practices included hero worship, tree worship, and ancestor worship.
  • The war goddess Kottavai was a significant deity, later assimilated as goddess Devi.
  • Minority communities practiced Jainism, Buddhism, Brahmanism, Judaism, and Christianity.

• Chera Dynasty Economy and Trade with Ancient Rome

  The Chera Kingdom thrived through trade with the Romans. Key factors contributing to their economic prosperity were:

  • Abundant spices like black pepper
  • Navigable rivers connecting mountains to the Arabian Sea
  • Favorable trade winds reducing sailing time

  The major seaport of Muziris housed two Roman regiments and facilitated trade in spices, ivory, timber, pearls, and gems.

• Social Life and Status of Women in the Chera Dynasty

  • The caste system was not prominent, and no clear Varna divisions existed.
  • Communities like the Pana, Kuruva, Paraya, and Veta held respectable positions.
  • Women held a significant status, with queens participating in religious ceremonies.

• Chera Dynasty Art, Architecture, and Temple Structures

  The Chera architectural style followed a distinct Dravidian tradition, with octagonal or rectangular temples built using sandstone or granite. Key features included:

  • Vimanam
  • Mandapams
  • Gopurams
  • Garbhagriha

• Decline of the Chera Dynasty and Fall of the Kingdom

  • Conquered by the Rashtrakutas in 805 AD.
  • Faced prolonged wars with the Cholas, leading to territorial losses.
  • Local chieftains gained independence, fragmenting the kingdom.

Chola Dynasty History in Tamil Nadu - Powerful Rulers of the Kaveri Valley

• Introduction to the Chola Dynasty and Its Significance

  The Cholas were the most powerful polity in the peninsular region, with the Kaveri valley as the nucleus of their power. They succeeded in establishing a strong regional state in Tamil Nadu, which flourished during the medieval period.



• Territorial Expansion of the Chola Dynasty and Military Conquests

  The Cholas rose to prominence in the 9th century CE when Vijayalaya seized Tanjavur from a Pallava feudatory chief known as the Muttarayas. This marked the beginning of their territorial dominance. They further expanded by subduing the Pallavas and the Pandyas, securing control over the Tamil macro-region.

  • The Chola state established a firm administrative structure, deriving resources from the fertile lands of the Kaveri valley.
  • During the reign of Rajaraja I and his successors, numerous feudatory chiefs were defeated and integrated into the Chola administrative framework.
  • Administrative units called Nadu were reorganized into Valanadu, with subdued chiefs placed in authority.
  • Landed magnates were assigned prestigious titles and roles in administration and military affairs, including the collection of land revenue.



• Chola Kingship and Legitimacy - Divine and Mythical Traditions

  The Cholas traced their lineage to the Suryavamsha (Solar Dynasty). To establish their legitimacy, the Chola rulers used elaborate genealogies, incorporating mythical traditions in their inscriptions. These are prominently seen in the Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates, Leiden Plates, Anbil Plates, and the Kanyakumari Inscription of Vira Rajendra.

  Chola prashastis (eulogies) were often inspired by the Itihaasa-Purana tradition, highlighting their claims to Brahmanical and Sanskritic heritage. These inscriptions served as a political tool for asserting divine legitimacy.

• Chola Dynasty Genealogy and Royal Titles

  • The Chola kings often took on Sanskritic titles like Kshatriyasikhamani (the crest jewel of Kshatriyas), a title used by Rajaraja I.
  • The use of the suffix “Varman” (e.g., Adityavarman and Parantaka Varman) emphasized their Kshatriya status.
  • Upon coronation, kings assumed new names like Prakesarivarman, Rajakesarivarman, and Arumolivarman, which often combined Tamil and Sanskrit influences.

• Chola Rituals and Ceremonies for Royal Legitimacy

  Chola kings conducted grand ceremonies to solidify their divine and political authority. Some of these rituals included:

  • Hiranyagarbha – A purification ritual symbolizing rebirth, performed to attain divine legitimacy.
  • Tulabhara – Weighing the king against gold or other valuable materials and distributing the equivalent wealth to Brahmanas.
  • Coronation ceremonies often involved symbolic rituals to affirm their Kshatriya status.

• Chola Land Grants and Administrative Policies

  Land grants were a prominent feature of the Chola administration. These grants not only rewarded Brahmanas for meritorious service but also helped convert unsettled lands into agricultural settlements. Some notable aspects include:

  • Vira Chola – A record indicates that a king was advised by a Brahmana (referred to as Dharmopadeshta) to grant land to ensure his ancestors’ place in heaven.
  • While inscriptions explicitly detail land grants, grants of gold, cattle, and other valuables are primarily recorded in eulogies.
  • The purpose of such grants was not solely charitable; they were a strategic tool for resource redistribution and state control.

• Chola Kings and Their Divine Legacies - Symbolism and Epithets

  Chola kings often drew parallels with divine figures to strengthen their rule. For instance:

  • Rajaraja I was referred to as Ulakalanda Perumel (the great one who measured the earth like Lord Trivikrama).
  • He was also depicted as a reincarnation of Lord Shiva, symbolizing supreme authority and divine protection over the land.
  • These symbolic titles further emphasized their divine right to rule.

• Chola Dynasty Local Administration System - Ur, Nadu, and Socio-Economic Structure

  • Overview of the Chola Dynasty's Local Administrative Structure

    The local administration under the Cholas was a well-organized system consisting of Ur (village-level assemblies) and Nadu (regional assemblies). The administrative units were closely tied to the agrarian economy, and local governance played a significant role in resource management and land grants.

  • Key Administrative Bodies in Chola Rule

    The Chola copper plate inscriptions provide valuable insights into the various administrative bodies involved in the execution of land grants and governance. These include:

    • Nattar - Representatives of the Nadu (local region)
    • Brahmadeyakkilavar - Brahmana donees of Brahmadeya (land grants to Brahmanas)
    • Tax-Free Villages - Categorized into:
      • Devadana - Land granted to temples
      • Palliccanda - Land granted to Jain institutions
      • Kanimurruttu - Exempt from certain taxes
      • Vettapperu-Urkalilar - Special tax-exempt settlements
    • Nagarattar - Merchant and trading community members, typically residing in settlements called Nagaram.

  • Ur and Nadu in the Chola Administrative Structure

    The Chola local administration was based on a two-tier system:

    • Ur - A village-level assembly composed of non-Brahmana landholders.
    • Nadu - A regional assembly consisting of multiple Urs, representing the collective agricultural settlements.

    According to historian Y. Subbarayalu, the Nadu was a prominent administrative unit that included both Brahmadeya and Vellanvagai (peasant) villages. The Nadu was not artificially created but emerged as a natural cluster of settlements in fertile areas, gradually expanding to less fertile regions.

  • Vellanvagai Villages and Socio-Economic Structure

    Vellanvagai villages were primarily agricultural settlements with a hierarchical social structure. Based on epigraphic evidence and studies by historians such as N. Karashima and Subbarayalu, these villages consisted of the following groups:

    • Cultivators (Kaniyudaiyar) - Landowners who held substantial agricultural land.
    • Tenant Cultivators (Ulukudi) - Farmers who worked on rented land.
    • Artisans - Including blacksmiths, carpenters, and potters.
    • Agricultural Laborers - Known as Paraicceri residents, primarily involved in farm work.

    The habitation areas within these villages included specific settlements for cultivators (Ur-Nattam), artisans (Kammanacceri), and laborers (Paraicceri).

  • Functions and Responsibilities of Ur in Chola Village Assemblies

    The Ur played a crucial role in local governance, primarily overseeing the management of village resources. Their functions included:

    • Supervision of agricultural lands and irrigation systems.
    • Execution of sale, purchase, and gifting of lands.
    • Maintaining land records and tax assessments.

    Membership in the Ur assembly was primarily determined by land ownership. Members often held titles like:

    • Udaiyan - Landholder with substantial property.
    • Kilan (Kilavan) - Village head or elder.
    • Velan - Peasant cultivator.
    • Peraraiyan - An influential regional figure.

  • Land Ownership and Resource Management During the Chola Era

    There is evidence of both collective and individual land ownership in Ur villages. While some villages held land communally, inscriptions also record instances where individual members sold or transferred land. The emergence of individual holdings indicates the diversification of agrarian practices over time.

  • Role of Nadu and Nattar in Regional Governance

    The Nadu represented a coalition of several villages, forming a larger regional unit. The governing body of the Nadu was the Nattar, composed of prominent landholders and leaders from various Urs. The Nattar assemblies often made decisions on land distribution, tax collection, and dispute resolution.

    Unlike the artificially established administrative units called Valanadus during Rajaraja I's reign, the Nadus were naturally formed regional clusters. These units emerged initially in fertile zones before expanding to peripheral areas, facilitating the spread of the agrarian economy.

  • Debates Among Historians on the Chola Administrative System

    There are differing views among historians regarding the administrative role of Nadu. While traditional interpretations view Nadu as a state-created administrative unit, recent scholarship suggests it was a naturally evolved peasant settlement, later integrated into the Chola state system.

    Key perspectives include:

    • N. Karashima - Emphasizes the communal ownership of land in Ur villages, but also acknowledges individual ownership in certain cases.
    • Y. Subbarayalu - Argues for the hierarchical structure of Vellanvagai villages, highlighting the presence of landholders, tenant cultivators, and laborers.
    • Nilakanta Sastri - Considers Nadu as a primary administrative unit encompassing multiple villages.
    • K.R. Mahalingam - Supports the view that Nadu was subdivided into smaller village units for efficient governance.

• Chola Dynasty Nadu Administration and Role of Nattars in Revenue Management

  • Overview of Nadu Administration in the Chola Dynasty

    During the Chola period, the Nadu was a significant administrative unit consisting of agricultural settlements. The Chola copper plates and inscriptions provide insights into the roles and responsibilities of the Nattars, who were predominantly Vellala landholders.

    One notable inscription is the Kiranur inscription of 1310 CE, which refers to the 'Urom of villages' qualified for the Nadu or Vada-chiruvayil-nadu, highlighting the existence of this administrative unit.

  • Role of Nattars in the Chola Administrative Structure

    The Nattars were the representatives of the Nadu and played a central role in village administration. Their primary functions included:

    • Executing land grants on behalf of the king.
    • Defining and enforcing land boundaries of granted lands.
    • Managing irrigation works and ensuring water supply for agriculture.
    • Supervising temple land donations and overseeing temple management.
    • Collecting and assessing revenue within the Nadu.

    Although the Nattars operated independently in many matters, they were ultimately subject to the king’s authority.

  • Nadu and Temple Land Management

    Temples were significant landowners during the Chola period. The Nadu administration played a key role in the management of temple lands. Lands donated to temples were often tax-exempt, referred to as Nattiraiyili.

    The Nadu was responsible for:

    • Ensuring temple lands were exempt from state taxes.
    • Managing the sale or leasing of temple lands.
    • Overseeing temple funds and ensuring their appropriate use.

    To manage tax-exempt lands, the Nadu sometimes levied special cesses or taxes, known as:

    • Nadatci
    • Nattu Viniyogan
    • Nattu Vyavasthai

  • Nadu and Revenue Administration in the Chola Era

    The Nadu served as the primary unit for revenue administration. Revenue collection and assessment were conducted within the Nadu, and local officials played key roles in this process.

    Some important terms related to Nadu revenue administration include:

    • Nattup-Puravu - Revenue collected from the Nadu.
    • Nattu Vari - Land revenue.
    • Nattuk-Kanakku - Revenue register maintained at the Nadu level.

    When taxes were exempted at the village level (Ur), the impact was recorded in the Nadu’s revenue registers.

  • Royal Officials in Nadu Administration

    While the Nattars were local representatives, the Chola state also appointed royal officials to oversee Nadu administration. Some of these officials included:

    • Komarravar - King’s revenue collectors who sometimes replaced Nattars in tax collection.
    • Mudaligal - High-ranking officials responsible for local administration.
    • Dandanayakam - Officials entrusted with judicial and administrative tasks.

    These officials ensured that the central authority of the Chola state was maintained within the Nadu, while still allowing a degree of local autonomy.

  • Nadu Officials and Their Responsibilities

    Several functionaries were appointed within the Nadu to manage specific tasks. Their designations and responsibilities included:

    • Nadu-Vagaiceyvar - Oversaw Nadu administration and represented the king's authority.
    • Nadu-Kurk-Ceyvar - Assisted in managing temple lands and local governance.
    • Nadu-Kankani-Nayagam - Responsible for supervising temple accounts and activities.
    • Nadu-Kankatci - Managed administrative affairs and revenue collection at the local level.

    The Nadu Kuru is specifically mentioned in inscriptions from Kulottunga I’s reign (1116 CE) for overseeing the functioning of new Devadana (temple) lands. Nadu officials were sometimes transferred to other Nadus, reflecting their integration into the broader administrative framework of the Chola state.

  • Chola State Control Over Nadu

    Despite the autonomy enjoyed by Nattars, the Chola kings maintained control over the Nadu administration. This was reflected in the dual administrative registers:

    • Variyilarkanakku - The state’s revenue register that recorded financial activities.
    • Nattukkanakku - The local Nadu-level revenue register.

    When the king issued orders regarding temple funds, these directives were recorded in both registers, demonstrating the interconnected nature of state and local administration.

  • Significance of Nadu in the Chola Administrative System

    The Nadu was a critical administrative unit in the Chola state, balancing both local autonomy and centralized authority. It played a major role in:

    • Facilitating the agricultural economy through effective land management.
    • Ensuring temple administration and religious endowments were properly managed.
    • Overseeing revenue collection and tax assessment.
    • Acting as a bridge between local agricultural communities and the Chola state.

    The administrative structure of the Nadu highlights the sophistication and adaptability of the Chola governance system, which integrated local traditions into a larger state framework.

• Brahmadeya and Nagaram

  • Overview of Brahmadeyas

    Brahmadeyas constituted the category of Brahmanas who were landholders in the agricultural tracts and who had been endowed with land (tax-free) and had organised themselves into a distinct group. Nagaram comprised traders who carried out trading and exchange activities in areas that had developed into commercial centres due to the growth of craft production and other activities carried out by artisans.

    When the Cholas emerged as an important ruling power in the middle of the 9th century CE in Thanjavur, there already existed many Brahmadeyas, which were densely populated and rich tracts in the Kaveri region. The Karantai plates of Rajendra I refer to 1080 Brahmanas who inhabited Tribhuvanamahadevi Caturvedimangalam. The assembly of these Brahmanas was called Sabha or Mahasabha.

  • Role of Temples and Ideology

    Most of the Brahmadeyas or Brahmana settlements were centred around the temple. Through the temple and the ideological focus based on the Puranas and Itihaasas, as well as the principles of Bhakti and Varnashramadharma, the differentiated society and monarchical polity were legitimized. Therefore, the kings endowed lands to Brahmanas and created Brahmadeyas as a means to legitimize their power.

  • Taniyur and Administration

    The inscriptions inform us that many of the Brahmadeyas in the Chola period were Taniyur (separate villages) in a Nadu. They had a separate administrative system for revenue and justice. Many agricultural villages were clubbed together with a Taniyur, and sometimes a Taniyur was placed subordinate to a temple. Here the Mulparusai was the body that handled administrative duties.

  • Sabha Formation and Prerequisites

    The inscriptions describe the prerequisites for membership to the executive committee of a Sabha, including:

    • Age
    • Landholding
    • Knowledge
    • Good behaviour

    The Karantai plates (referring to 1080 Brahmanas) mention the existence of Brahmadeyas but do not detail how the Sabha and other committees were formed. Their origin may be attributed to Dharamashastric norms.

  • Sabha Roles and Responsibilities

    The Sabha and its committees played an essential role in supervising the temple lands, cattle, and other resources. Their responsibilities included:

    • Assigning lands to tenants and levying rent.
    • Maintaining records of revenue collected and expenses incurred.
    • Supervising temple functionaries from priests to cleaners.
    • Organising daily temple services.

    The Sabha acted as a group, making decisions for the benefit of the organisation rather than for individuals.

  • Decline of Brahmadeyas

    The Brahmadeya settlements, where temples played a central role, gradually lost importance in the later phase of the Chola period. After the mid-11th century CE, fewer Brahmadeya tracts were established, and more temples were constructed or renovated. The Mahasabha, in some instances, faced financial difficulties and had to rely on the income from neighbouring villages when unable to repay debts owed to temples.

  • Nagaram Settlement

    The Nagaram settlement was a commercial tract where traders and artisans resided. An inscription from 1036 CE in Chidambaram mentions the distinction between non-Brahmana inhabitants of superior status (Kudiga) and those of inferior status (Kil Kalanai).

    Kudiga and Kil Kalanai

    The Kudiga group included two merchant categories:

    • Sankarappadiyar - Lower merchant group.
    • Vyaparin - Higher merchant group.

    Additionally, three other occupational groups were part of the Kudiga category:

    • Vellals - Cultivators.
    • Saliyar - Cloth merchants.
    • Pattinavar - Fishermen.

    Artisans and Craftsmen

    The subordinate artisans and workers (Kil Kalanai) consisted of:

    • Taccar - Carpenters.
    • Kollar - Blacksmiths.
    • Tattar - Goldsmiths.
    • Koliyar - Weavers.

  • Nagarattar and Nagaravariyam

    Nagarattar served as the representative body of traders. The Nagaram settlement was a distinct area, and its governing committee was called Nagaravariyam.

    Nagaram held common land known as Nagarakkani, which they acquired through purchase or lease. The responsibilities of the Nagaravariyam included:

    • Levying taxes and rendering services to local groups.
    • Maintaining records of income and expenditure.
    • Paying royal levies in the form of gold and paddy.
    • Allocating taxes to local temples such as:
      • Kadamai - Tax on land.
      • Nagaraviniyogam - Tax for the sustenance of the Nagaram.

    In some cases, the Nagaram settlements functioned independently of the Nadu, acting as Taniyur.

• King, Officials, and Chiefs

  • Administrative Structure

    The Chola kingdom had a structured administrative system with various officials. While there is no clear evidence of a formal council of ministers, Uddan-kottam likely served that purpose. Officials were often paid through land grants and had the authority to manage and trade lands.

  • Hierarchy of Officials

    The administrative hierarchy had flexible roles with opportunities for upward and downward mobility. The key categories were:

    • Perundanan - Higher-ranking officials.
    • Sirutaram - Lower-ranking officials.
    • Sirudanattup Perundaram - Middle-level commanders (Senapatis).
    • Nyayattar - Judges, occupying both higher and lower positions.

    However, historians suggest that these divisions are not consistently evidenced in inscriptions.

  • Administrative Units

    The Chola administration was organized into distinct territorial units:

    • Village - The smallest unit.
    • Nadu - Cluster of villages.
    • Valanadu - Group of several Nadus.
    • Taniyur - A separate village or settlement.
    • Mandalam - Largest unit, equivalent to a province.

  • Important Officials and Their Titles

    • Adhikari - King's officer, held titles like Udaiyan, Kilan, Velan, and Muvendavelan.
    • Senapati - Military commander with titles such as Udaiyan, Brahma, and Araiyan.
    • Dandanayakam - Similar to Senapati, sometimes referred to as Pallavaraiyan.
    • Nadu Kuru - Revenue assessment officer in the Nadu.
    • Nadu Vagai - Revenue official with similar duties.
    • Kottam Vagai - Revenue officer specifically in the Tondaimandalam region.
    • Nadukankaninayakam - Senior officer overseeing multiple Nadus.
    • Srikaryam - Temple officer handling administrative tasks, not rituals.
    • Mugavetti - Royal letter writer.
    • Pattolai - Junior land revenue officer.

  • Land Administration

    Land revenue and management were crucial to the administration. Key departments and records included:

    • Puravuvari-tinaikkalam - Department of land revenue.
    • Varipottagam - Record of land rights.
    • Vari-pottagak-kanakku - Land revenue register.
    • Kankanis - Supervisors and auditors of records.
    • Variyilidu - Official record entry.

  • Land Grant Process

    The Chola king often granted lands to Brahmanas and temples. The process involved:

    • Triuvaykkelvi - Oral royal order.
    • Sri-mukham - Written document issued by the Anatti (executive officer).
    • Nattukkon, Nadukilavan, and Urudaiyan - Local magnates involved in land grants.
    • Vidaiyil Adigari - Responsible for recording the order.
    • Tittu - Official document.
    • Aravolai - Charity deed.

  • Judicial System

    Justice was primarily administered by village assemblies through the Nyayattar (judges). The central court was called the Dharmasana, presided over by Dharamasana Bhattas, who were Brahmanas proficient in law.

    Offenses affecting the king or ruling dynasty were directly handled by the king. Punishments included:

    • Imposition of fines
    • Capital punishment

  • Local Administration

    Local bodies played a significant role in administration. The officer hierarchy ensured proper governance at all levels, with titles indicating their roles and responsibilities. Some officers bore titles combining their rank with the king’s name or epithet.

• Chola Administration

  • Land Revenue System

    Rajaraja I (1001 CE) introduced an elaborate land revenue system, including the creation of Valanadus, a practice continued by later rulers. The Puravuvari Tinaikkalam (land revenue department) managed tax collection.

    Officials in Land Revenue Department

    • Puravu Vari
    • Vari Pottagan
    • Mugavetti
    • Vari Pottaga
    • Kanakku
    • Variyilidu
    • Pattolai

    During Rajendra II, officers had more elaborate designations such as Puravu-vari-tinaikkala-kanakkar. Under Kulottunga I, the primary officials were:

    • Puravu-vari-Srikarana
    • Nayagam
    • Mugavetti

    Later, the term Variyilar became a general reference for revenue officers, who often held titles such as Udaiyan and Muvendavelan.

  • Titles and Ranks

    Titles like Udaiyan, Kilan, and Kilavan indicated land possession. Other titles included:

    • Velan
    • Muvendavelan (a prestigious Chola title since Parantaka's time, often associated with high-ranking officers).
    • Araiyan (more prestigious than Muvendavelan, used even as chiefs transitioned to landed magnates).

    Merchants and artisans also held specific titles:

    • Cetti, Mayilatti, and Palan - Merchant titles, with some merchants holding offices like Senapati and Accountant.
    • Peruntaccan and Perunkollan - Titles for artisans working in the royal palace and temples.

  • Royal Court and Advisors

    While no formal council of ministers is evident, key officials included:

    • Purohita (Dharmopadeshta) - Religious advisor.
    • Rajaguru - Chief priest and advisor.
    • Tirumandira Olai - Royal order scribe.
    • Adhikari - Senior administrative officer.
    • Vayilketpar - Recorded the king’s directives.

    According to historian M.G.S. Narayanan, Udan Kuttams (royal companions of honor) existed and had an Adhikari as their head.

    Members of the King's Court

    • Brahmana Advisors
    • Rajaguru
    • Adhikaris
    • Tirumandira Olai Nayagams
    • Vayilketpar
    • Head of the King's Bodyguards
    • Samantas (Feudatory Chiefs)

  • Taxation System

    Several levies were imposed, mainly collected in kind (paddy):

    • Antarayam
    • Eccoru
    • Kadamai (Produce-rent)
    • Kudimai
    • Muttaiyal
    • Vetti (Labour-rent)
    • Tattar-pattan (Cash payment)

  • Military Administration

    The Cholas conducted significant military campaigns:

    • Sri Lanka (Rajaraja I)
    • Sri Vijaya (Rajendra I)

    The Chola military was well-organized with specialized units:

    • Kudiraiccevagar - Cavalrymen.
    • Anaiyatkal - Elephant warriors.
    • Villigal, Anukkar - Archers.
    • Valangai Velaikkarar - Soldiers from peasant groups.
    • Idangai - Mercenary soldiers from artisan groups.

    The Kantalur Salai was a military training institution, likely destroyed by the Cholas during their war against the Cheras.

  • Role of Chiefs

    Chiefs played an important role in governance. In the Pandyan kingdom, the chief category was Ays. The Sangam literature mentions several other chiefs:

    • Ays
    • Vels
    • Muvas
    • Kodumbalurs
    • Adigamans

    Pallava inscriptions also mention chiefs like:

    • Gangas
    • Adigamans
    • Banas
    • Vettuva-adiaraiyan
    • Muttaraiyar

    During the Chola period, the notable chiefs included:

    • Paluvettaraiyar
    • Vels
    • Malavas
    • Gangas
    • Banas

    Chiefs were granted land and collected dues in return for Padi Kaval (territorial protection). In the post-Kulottunga period, Nilamaittittu (diplomatic agreements between chiefs) were recorded.

Pandya Dynasty

• • Origin of the Term 'Pandya'

    It is difficult to determine the origin of the term 'Pandya' with complete accuracy. Various opinions exist regarding its origin, and the names of the Pandyan monarchs are mentioned in several important literary works such as:

    • Sangam literature
    • The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata
    • The Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamsha
    • The Arthashastra of Kautilya
    • Indica, the account of Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the court of king Chandragupta Maurya of the Mauryan Empire

    Some historians suggest that the term may be derived from the label 'Pandava'. Another interpretation is that the Tamil word 'Pandia' means 'old country.' Additionally, the Tamil word 'Pandi' means 'bull,' symbolizing strength and masculinity. Consequently, it is argued that the Pandyan rulers adopted this title to emphasize their power. The first king to use the title 'Pandya' was Kulashekharan, and his successors continued this tradition, making the name synonymous with the dynasty.

  • Categories of Pandya Rule

    The rule of the Pandyas can be classified into three main sections:

    • Early Pandyas
    • The First Pandyan Empire
    • The Second Pandyan Empire

    • Early Pandyas

      The early Pandyas, also known as the Pandyas of the Sangam Age, were contemporaries of the Cheras and the Cholas. These kingdoms often engaged in conflicts to establish political dominance. Following the rise of the Kalabhras, both the Pallavas and Pandyas lost their political control. However, the Pandyas regained their influence, with the Kaveri River marking the boundary between their territory and the Pallavas.

      The earliest known ruler from the Pandyan dynasty was Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludi. Another significant king was Neduncheliyan I, also known as Ayyappudai Kadantha Neduncheliyan, meaning 'the one who vanquished the Aryans.' His rule is mentioned in the Tamil literary work Silapaddikaram by Ilango Adigal. Nedunchelian II was regarded as the greatest ruler of the early Pandyas, defeating the combined forces of the Cholas and Cheras at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam.

    • The First Pandyan Empire

      The First Pandyan Empire was established by Kadungon in the 6th century after defeating the Kalabhras. The rulers of this empire adopted titles such as:

      • Maravarman
      • Sadayavarman (worshippers of Lord Shiva) or Sadaiyan (the one with dreadlocks)

      One notable ruler was Arikesari Maravarman, known for defeating the Cheras and imprisoning their ruler. His son, Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran, faced conflicts with the Chalukyas of Badami and the Western Gangas. His successor, Maravarman Rajsimha I, expanded the empire through battles with the Pallava ruler Nandivarman II and the Chalukyas.

      The last ruler of the First Pandyan Empire was Maravarman Rajasimha III, who was defeated by the Chola king Parantaka I. The Chola ruler captured the Pandyan capital, earning the title Maduraikonda. Eventually, in the 10th century, the resurgence of the Cholas further diminished the power of the Pandyas.

  Ultimately, the decline of the Pandyas was marked by the defeat of Vira Pandya by Aditya Karikala, the son of Parantaka Chola II.

• Pandya Dynasty: Rise, Expansion, and Conflicts

  • Second Pandyan Empire Expansion and Military Conquests

    Later in the 13th century, the Pandyas regained their dominance under the leadership of Maravarman Sundara Pandyan. He laid the foundation for the Second Pandyan Empire by forcing the Chola ruler Kulothunga Chola III to submit to Pandyan authority. The most influential ruler of this period was Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan, under whom the empire reached its zenith, extending its territory significantly.

    The Pandyan military achieved victories in regions such as the Telugu country, Kalinga (present-day Odisha), and Ceylon. Despite assistance from the Hoysalas, the declining Chola Empire failed to resist the growing Pandyan power. Eventually, Maravarman Kulashekhara Pandyan I defeated the joint forces of Rajendra Chola III and the Hoysala ruler, effectively ending Chola rule in South India.

  • Pandyan Civil War and the Dynasty's Political Decline

    Following the fall of the Chola Empire, internal conflicts further weakened the Pandyan Empire. A civil war erupted between Vira Pandya and Sundara Pandya, the sons of Maravarman Kulashekhara Pandyan I. This intense rivalry accelerated the dynasty's decline, leading to political instability and loss of influence.

  • Pallava-Pandya Conflicts: Political Rivalry in South India

    The political landscape of South India during the early medieval period was marked by frequent battles between the Pandyas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas. The Chalukyas of Vatapi and the Pallavas of Kanchi were particularly at odds, often contesting territories. The ambitious Pallava monarch Mahendravarman I expanded his empire up to the Krishna River, while the Chalukyan king Pulakesin II established dominance over the northern regions.

  • Three-Way Struggle: Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Pandyas

    With the emergence of the Pandyan Dynasty of Madurai, a fierce triangular rivalry intensified. The Pandyas, aiming to expand their control over the Kaveri Delta, formed alliances with the Chalukyas to weaken the Pallavas. Notable rulers like Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman I allied with Vikramaditya I of the Chalukyas, targeting Pallava territories.

    Pandyan rulers also launched military campaigns against neighboring kingdoms like the Cheras and initiated invasions into Ceylon. During the reign of Jayantavarman (645-670 CE), the Pandyan victories over the Cheras were commemorated by adopting the title Vanavan.

  • Pandyan Interference in Pallava Succession and Diplomatic Tactics

    Strategic interference in Pallava politics was another tool used by the Pandyas to consolidate power. Maravarman Rajasimha I formed alliances with the Chalukyas to support rivals like Chitramaya against Pallava rulers. His repeated victories earned him the title Pallava Bhanjana (Breaker of the Pallavas).

    However, Pallava monarch Nandivarman II responded to the Pandyan threat by securing matrimonial alliances, notably marrying Reva, the daughter of Chalukyan ruler Dantidurga. This strategy aimed to counterbalance the Pandyan-Chalukya coalition. Despite their efforts, the Pandyan incursions remained a significant challenge for the Pallavas.

  The complex web of alliances, military campaigns, and political maneuvering among the Pandyas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas exemplifies the volatile nature of South Indian politics during this era.

Kalabhra Interregnum and the Pandya, Chola, and Pallava History

The Pandyas were overthrown by the Kalabhras, leading to a period of political discontinuity known as the Kalabhra interregnum, lasting from 3rd to 7th centuries. The origin of the Kalabhras is uncertain. However, by the end of the 6th century or early 7th century, the Pandyas under Kadungon regained power, restoring their rule. The Pallavas faced a similar fate but reestablished their dominance under Simhavishnu, who founded the imperial Pallava dynasty.

• Chalukya Invasion and Pallava Setback

  The prestige of the Pallavas as an imperial power diminished when the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya II invaded their territory, briefly capturing Kanchipuram. Subsequently, Nandivarman III was defeated by the Pandyan ruler Shrimara Shrivallabha (815-862 CE) near Kumbakonam.

• Pallava Civil War and Chola Victory

  Following the death of the Pallava king, a war of succession erupted among his three sons. During this conflict, Nrupatunga lost his life. The Chola king Aditya Chola and the Pandya emperor Kamavarman defeated Aparajita, one of the Pallava brothers. The third brother submitted to the Cholas’ rule by the early 10th century, marking the end of the Pallava imperial reign.

• Regional Conflicts and Pallava Downfall

  The Pallavas faced continuous military challenges from the Chalukyas with support from the Western Gangas. Additionally, opportunistic invasions by the Pandyas, Rashtrakutas, and Cholas further weakened their hold over the region.

• Pandya Civil War and Delhi Sultanate Invasion

  The Pandyan kingdom also experienced internal turmoil due to a war of succession, which eventually led to its downfall. In 1311, Malik Kafur, the military general of the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji, invaded Madurai during the conflict between Vira Pandya and Sundara Pandya. Kafur’s campaign was notably profitable, reflecting the wealth of the Pandyan kingdom. However, the invasion weakened the Pandyas, enabling their feudatories to assert power independently.

• Further Delhi Sultanate Invasions

  The northern territories of the Pandyas fell to the Kakatiyas. The Delhi Sultanate launched two more invasions, with the final one led by Ulugh Khan (Muhammad Bin Tughlaq). During his reign (1325-1351), the Pandyan kingdom was annexed and merged into the Sultanate. However, the Sultanate's control over Madurai diminished by the end of his rule.

History in the deep south- Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas: The Megalithic Culture of Tamil Nadu

• Several elements mark the beginning of the historical period.
  • Settlements of large scale rural communities
  • Rise of social classes
  • Use of writing
  • Beginnings of written literature
• These phenomena were not found at the tip of the peninsula with the Kaveri delta as the nuclear zone till about the second century B.C.
• Up to this period, the upland portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people who are called megalith builders.
• The megaliths are found in all upland areas of the peninsula, but their concentration seems to be in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
• Their beginnings can be traced to circa 1000 B.C.
• In many cases, the megalithic phase lasted from about the fifth to the first century B.C.
• In a few places, this phase persisted even up to the early centuries of the Christian era.

Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas: Early Kingdoms of the Sangam Era

• Read more on Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas
• The southern end of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna river was divided into three kingdoms—Chola, Pandya, and Chera or Kerala.
• The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
• He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman.
• All this sounds exaggerated but suggests that the Pandya society was matriarchal.
• The Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the third century BC.
• The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the southeastern portion of the Indian peninsula.
• The Chola kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromandal.
• The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas.

The Rise of Brahmanism in South India during the Sangam Era

• The state and society that were formed in the Tamil land in the early centuries of the Christian era developed under the impact of Brahmanism.
• The Brahmanical influence was confined to a small part of the Tamil territory and only to the upper levels of Tamil society in that area.
• The kings performed the Vedic sacrifices.
• The Brahmanas, who were the followers of the Vedas, carried on disputations, possibly with the Jainas and the Buddhists.
• But the chief local god worshipped by the people was Murugan, who was also called Subramaniya.

Tamil Language and Sangam Literature

• All that has been stated above about the life of the Tamils in the beginning of the historical period is based on the Sangam literature.
• The available sangam literature, which was produced by these assemblies, was compiled in circa A.D, 300-601).
• The early, middle, and fast strata of the texts are yet to be clearly identified, but they contain descriptions which tally with what we know from the Greek and Roman accounts, and from archaeology.
• There is no doubt that the art of writing was known to the Tamils before the beginning of the Christian era.
• More than 75 short inscriptions in the Brahmi script have been found in natural caves, mainly in the Madurai region.
• They provide the specimen of the earliest form of Tamil mixed with Prakrit words.
• They belong to the second-first centuries B.C when the Jaina and Buddhist missionaries appeared in this area.

The Purse and the Sword

• Trade, foreign and internal, constituted a very important source of royal revenue.
• For the safety of merchants and prevention of smuggling, soldiers maintained constant vigil on the road.
• Spoils of war further added to royal income.
• The tip of the peninsula and the adjacent regions were extremely fertile.
• The land produced paddy, ragi, and sugarcane.
• In addition to this, the Tamil region produced grains, fruit, pepper, and turmeric.
• The king had a share in all this produce.
• The state maintained a regular army consisting of chariots drawn by oxen, elephants, cavalry, and infantry.

Rise of Social Classes

• Taxes enabled the king not only to maintain a professional army but also to pay the poets and priests, who were mainly Brahmanas.
• Many Brahmanas functioned as poets and were generously rewarded by the king.
• The Tamil Brahmanas took meat and wine.
• Civil and military offices were held under both the Cholas and the Pandyas by vallalas or rich peasants.
• The ruling caste was called the arasar, and its members had marriage relations with the vallalas.
• The rich constituted the peasantry, divided into the rich and the poor.
• Agricultural operations were generally carried on by women of the lowest class (kadaisiyar).
• Several outcastes and forest tribes suffered from extreme poverty.

Exercises

• What is meant by the megaliths? What light do they throw on the material culture of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu?
  • Answer: The megaliths refer to ancient burial sites characterized by large stone structures. They provide insight into the material culture of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu by revealing burial practices, including the use of pottery, iron objects, and stone circles, shedding light on ancient societal customs and beliefs.
• When did the Pandyas first appear in history? Give an account of their activities in the early centuries of the Christian era.
  • Answer: The Pandyas first appeared in history around the early centuries BCE. In the early centuries of the Christian era, they engaged in prosperous trade with the Roman Empire, sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus, and enjoyed considerable wealth and influence. The Pandya kings also performed Vedic sacrifices, indicating their adherence to Brahmanical traditions.
• Where did the Cholas rule first? Narrate the history of Kaveripattanam.
  • Answer: The Cholas initially ruled from Kaveripattanam, a significant center of trade and commerce situated along the Kaveri River. The city served as the Chola capital and boasted a large dock, facilitating maritime trade. King Karikala, a renowned Chola monarch, constructed extensive embankments along the Kaveri River with the labor of thousands of captives from Sri Lanka.
• Mention the commercial activities of the early Tamil kingdoms.
  • Answer: The early Tamil kingdoms were engaged in lucrative trade activities, including the export of spices like pepper, elephants for ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, and silk. They traded with regions such as the Roman Empire, the Malaya archipelago, Arabia, and China, contributing to their prosperity and wealth.
• What is meant by the Sangam literature? Give an account of life covered by it.
  • Answer: Sangam literature refers to a collection of Tamil poems and texts compiled during the Sangam period, reflecting the social, cultural, and political life of ancient Tamil society. It covers a wide range of subjects, including love, war, ethics, and governance, providing valuable insights into the lives of people, their customs, beliefs, and societal structures during that era.